Animal tissues. "Animal tissues: epithelial and connective tissue types of the animal body table

In multicellular animals, cells make up tissues.

Textile - This is a group of cells similar in structure and function and the intercellular substance secreted by these cells.

In the body of animals there are the following types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous.

epithelial tissues form integuments, line the cavities of the body and internal organs. Different epithelial tissues consist of one or more layers of tightly adjacent cells and contain almost no intercellular substance. They perform protective, secretory, gas exchange, suction and some other functions (Fig. 1, A) in animal organisms.

They protect the body of the animal from shock, damage, overheating, hypothermia.

The skin covering the body of vertebrates contains glands. The sebaceous glands in birds and mammals secrete a greasy secret that lubricates feathers and wool, giving them elasticity and preventing them from getting wet. Animals have sweat, odorous and mammary glands.

The intestinal epithelium absorbs nutrients. The epithelium lining the respiratory organs is involved in gas exchange; The epithelium of the excretory organs is involved in the removal of harmful metabolic products from the body.

Connective tissues consist of a relatively small number of cells scattered in the mass of the intercellular substance (Fig. 1, B), and perform supporting, supporting, protective and binding functions. These tissues are cartilage, bones, tendons, ligaments.

The connective tissue, which is part of the skeleton, supports the body, creates its support, and protects the internal organs. In adipose connective tissue, reserve nutrients are stored in the form of fat. A kind of connective tissue blood - provides internal communication between organs: it carries oxygen from the lungs to all organs and tissues, and carbon dioxide from them to the lungs, delivers nutrients from the intestines to all organs, and then to the organs of excretion of harmful metabolic products.

Muscle tissues consist of elongated cells that receive irritation from the nervous system and respond to it with a contraction (Fig. 1, IN). Due to the contraction and relaxation of the skeletal muscles, the movement of animals and the movement of individual parts of their body occurs. Muscles give shape to the body, support, protect internal organs.

The internal organs have smooth muscle tissue, consisting of elongated cells with rod-shaped nuclei.

striated muscle tissue in mammals forms skeletal muscles. Its muscle fibers are long, multinucleated, and have a clearly visible transverse striation.

Nervous tissues form the nervous system, are part of the nerve nodes, spinal cord and brain. They are made up of nerve cells. neurons , whose bodies have a stellate shape, long and short processes (Fig. 1, G). Neurons perceive irritation and transmit excitation to muscles, skin, other tissues, organs. Nervous tissues ensure the coordinated work of the body.

In multicellular animals, groups of cells that are identical in structure and function form tissues. Animals have epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues.



Tissue as a collection of cells and intercellular substance. Types and types of fabrics, their properties. Intercellular interactions.

There are about 200 types of cells in the adult human body. Groups of cells that have the same or similar structure, connected by a unity of origin and adapted to perform certain functions, form fabrics . This is the next level hierarchical structure the human body - the transition from the cellular level to the tissue level (see Figure 1.3.2).

Any tissue is a collection of cells and intercellular substance , which can be a lot (blood, lymph, loose connective tissue) or little (integumentary epithelium).

The cells of each tissue (and some organs) have their own name: the cells of the nervous tissue are called neurons , cells bone tissue - osteocytes , liver - hepatocytes and so on.

intercellular substance chemically is a system consisting of biopolymers in high concentration and water molecules. It contains structural elements: collagen, elastin fibers, blood and lymphatic capillaries, nerve fibers and sensory endings (pain, temperature and other receptors). This provides the necessary conditions for the normal functioning of tissues and the performance of their functions.

There are four types of fabrics: epithelial , connecting (including blood and lymph), muscular And nervous (see figure 1.5.1).

epithelial tissue , or epithelium , covers the body, lines the internal surfaces of organs (stomach, intestines, Bladder and others) and cavities (abdominal, pleural), and also forms most of the glands. In accordance with this, integumentary and glandular epithelium are distinguished.

Integumentary epithelium (view A in figure 1.5.1) forms layers of cells (1), closely - practically without intercellular substance - adjacent to each other. He happens single layer or multilayer . The integumentary epithelium is a border tissue and performs the main functions: protection from external influences and participation in the metabolism of the body with the environment - absorption of food components and excretion of metabolic products ( excretion ). The integumentary epithelium is flexible, providing the mobility of internal organs (for example, contractions of the heart, distension of the stomach, intestinal motility, expansion of the lungs, and so on).

glandular epithelium consists of cells, inside of which there are granules with a secret (from the Latin secretio- branch). These cells carry out the synthesis and release of many substances important for the body. By secretion, saliva, gastric and intestinal juice, bile, milk, hormones and other biologically active compounds are formed. The glandular epithelium can form independent organs - glands (for example, the pancreas, thyroid gland, endocrine glands, or endocrine glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream that perform regulatory functions in the body, etc.), and may be part of other organs (for example, the glands of the stomach).

Connective tissue (types B and C in Figure 1.5.1) is distinguished by a large variety of cells (1) and an abundance of intercellular substrate consisting of fibers (2) and an amorphous substance (3). Fibrous connective tissue can be loose and dense. Loose connective tissue (view B) is present in all organs, it surrounds the blood and lymphatic vessels. Dense connective tissue performs mechanical, supporting, shaping and protective functions. In addition, there is still a very dense connective tissue (type B), which consists of tendons and fibrous membranes (dura mater, periosteum, and others). Connective tissue not only performs mechanical functions, but also actively participates in metabolism, the production of immune bodies, the processes of regeneration and wound healing, and ensures adaptation to changing living conditions.

Connective tissue includes adipose tissue (view D in Figure 1.5.1). Fats are deposited (deposited) in it, during the decay of which a large amount of energy is released.

play an important role in the body skeletal (cartilaginous and bone) connective tissues . They perform mainly supporting, mechanical and protective functions.

cartilage tissue (type D) consists of cells (1) and a large amount of elastic intercellular substance (2), it forms intervertebral discs, some components of the joints, trachea, bronchi. Cartilage does not have blood vessels and receives the necessary substances, absorbing them from the surrounding tissues.

Bone (view E) consists of their bone plates, inside which cells lie. Cells are connected to each other by numerous processes. Bone tissue is hard and the bones of the skeleton are built from this tissue.

A type of connective tissue is blood . In our view, blood is something very important for the body and, at the same time, difficult to understand. Blood (view G in Figure 1.5.1) consists of an intercellular substance - plasma (1) and suspended in it shaped elements (2) - erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets (Figure 1.5.2 shows their photographs obtained using an electron microscope). All shaped elements develop from a common precursor cell. The properties and functions of blood are discussed in more detail in section 1.5.2.3.

Cells muscle tissue (Figure 1.3.1 and views Z and I in Figure 1.5.1) have the ability to contract. Since a lot of energy is required for contraction, muscle tissue cells are characterized by a high content of mitochondria .

There are two main types of muscle tissue - smooth (view H in Figure 1.5.1), which is present in the walls of many, and usually hollow, internal organs (vessels, intestines, gland ducts, and others), and striated (view And in Figure 1.5.1), which includes cardiac and skeletal muscle tissue. Bundles of muscle tissue form muscles. They are surrounded by layers of connective tissue and permeated with nerves, blood and lymphatic vessels (see Figure 1.3.1).

General information on tissues is given in Table 1.5.1.

Table 1.5.1. Tissues, their structure and functions

Fabric name	Specific cell names	intercellular substance	Where is this tissue found?	Functions	Drawing
EPITHELIAL TISSUES
Integumentary epithelium (single layer and multilayer)	Cells ( epitheliocytes ) closely adjoin each other, forming layers. The cells of the ciliated epithelium have cilia, the intestinal cells have villi.	Little, does not contain blood vessels; The basement membrane separates the epithelium from the underlying connective tissue.	The inner surfaces of all hollow organs (stomach, intestines, bladder, bronchi, blood vessels, etc.), cavities (abdominal, pleural, articular), the surface layer of the skin ( epidermis ).	Protection from external influences (epidermis, ciliated epithelium), absorption of food components (gastrointestinal tract), excretion of metabolic products (urinary system); provides organ mobility.	Fig.1.5.1, view A
Glandular epithelium	Glandulocytes contain secretory granules with biologically active substances. They can be located singly or form independent organs (glands).	The intercellular substance of the gland tissue contains blood, lymphatic vessels, nerve endings.	Glands of internal (thyroid, adrenal glands) or external (salivary, sweat) secretion. Cells can be located singly in the integumentary epithelium (respiratory system, gastrointestinal tract).	Working out hormones (section 1.5.2.9), digestive enzymes (bile, gastric, intestinal, pancreatic juice, etc.), milk, saliva, sweat and lacrimal fluid, bronchial secretions, etc.	Rice. 1.5.10 "The structure of the skin" - sweat and sebaceous glands
Connective tissues
Loose connective	The cellular composition is characterized by great diversity: fibroblasts , fibrocytes , macrophages , lymphocytes , single adipocytes and etc.	A large number of; consists of an amorphous substance and fibers (elastin, collagen, etc.)	Present in all organs, including muscles, surrounds blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves; main component dermis .	Mechanical (sheath of a vessel, nerve, organ); participation in metabolism trophism ), production of immune bodies, processes regeneration .	Fig.1.5.1, view B
Dense connective		Fibers predominate over amorphous matter.	Framework of internal organs, dura mater, periosteum, tendons and ligaments.	Mechanical, shaping, supporting, protective.	Fig.1.5.1, view B
fatty	Almost all of the cytoplasm adipocytes occupies the fat vacuole.	There is more intercellular substance than cells.	Subcutaneous adipose tissue, perirenal tissue, omentums abdominal cavity etc.	Deposition of fats; energy supply due to the breakdown of fats; mechanical.	Fig.1.5.1, view D
cartilaginous	Chondrocytes , chondroblasts (from lat. chondron- cartilage)	Differs in elasticity, including due to the chemical composition.	Cartilages of the nose, ears, larynx; articular surfaces of bones; anterior ribs; bronchi, trachea, etc.	Supporting, protective, mechanical. Participates in mineral metabolism ("salt deposition"). Bones contain calcium and phosphorus (almost 98% of the total amount of calcium!).	Fig.1.5.1, view D
Bone	osteoblasts , osteocytes , osteoclasts (from lat. os- bone)	Strength is due to mineral "impregnation".	Skeleton bones; auditory ossicles in the tympanic cavity (hammer, anvil and stirrup)		Fig.1.5.1, view E
Blood	red blood cells (including youth forms), leukocytes , lymphocytes , platelets and etc.	Plasma 90-93% consists of water, 7-10% - proteins, salts, glucose, etc.	The internal contents of the cavities of the heart and blood vessels. In violation of their integrity - bleeding and hemorrhage.	Gas exchange, participation in humoral regulation, metabolism, thermoregulation, immune defense; coagulation as a defensive reaction.	Fig.1.5.1, view G; fig.1.5.2
Lymph	Mostly lymphocytes	Plasma (lymphoplasm)	The contents of the lymphatic system	Participation in immune defense, metabolism, etc.	Rice. 1.3.4 "Cell Shapes"
MUSCLE TISSUE
Smooth muscle tissue	Orderly arranged myocytes spindle-shaped	There is little intercellular substance; contains blood and lymphatic vessels, nerve fibers and endings.	In the walls of hollow organs (vessels, stomach, intestines, urinary and gallbladder, etc.)	Peristalsis gastrointestinal tract, contraction of the bladder, maintenance of blood pressure due to vascular tone, etc.	Fig.1.5.1, view H
striated	Muscle fibers can contain over 100 cores!		Skeletal muscles; cardiac muscle tissue has automatism (chapter 2.6)	Pumping function of the heart; arbitrary muscle activity; participation in the thermoregulation of the functions of organs and systems.	Fig.1.5.1 (view I)
NERVE TISSUE
nervous	Neurons ; neuroglial cells perform auxiliary functions	neuroglia rich in lipids (fats)	Brain and spinal cord, ganglia (glands), nerves (nerve bundles, plexuses, etc.)	Perception of irritation, development and conduction of an impulse, excitability; regulation of the functions of organs and systems.	Fig.1.5.1, view K

Preservation of the form and performance of specific functions by the tissue is genetically programmed: the ability to perform specific functions and differentiation is transferred to daughter cells through DNA. The regulation of gene expression, as the basis of differentiation, was discussed in section 1.3.4.

Differentiation is a biochemical process in which relatively homogeneous cells that have arisen from a common progenitor cell are transformed into increasingly specialized, specific cell types that form tissues or organs. Most differentiated cells usually retain their specific features even in a new environment.

In 1952, scientists at the University of Chicago separated chick embryo cells by growing (incubating) them in an enzyme solution with gentle agitation. However, the cells did not remain separated, but began to combine into new colonies. Moreover, when hepatic cells were mixed with retinal cells, the formation of cell aggregates occurred in such a way that retinal cells always moved into inner part cell mass.

Cell interactions . What allows the fabrics not to crumble at the slightest external impact? And what ensures the coordinated work of cells and the performance of specific functions by them?

Many observations prove the ability of cells to recognize each other and respond accordingly. Interaction is not only the ability to transmit signals from one cell to another, but also the ability to act jointly, that is, synchronously. On the surface of each cell are receptors (see section 1.3.2), thanks to which each cell recognizes another similar to itself. And these "detector devices" function according to the "key - lock" rule - this mechanism is repeatedly mentioned in the book.

Let's talk a little about how cells interact with each other. There are two main ways of intercellular interaction: diffusion And adhesive . Diffusion is an interaction based on intercellular channels, pores in the membranes of neighboring cells, located strictly opposite each other. Adhesive (from Latin adhaesio- sticking, sticking) - mechanical connection of cells, long-term and stable retention of them at a close distance from each other. The chapter on cell structure describes different kinds intercellular connections (desmosomes, synapses, etc.). This is the basis for organizing cells into various multicellular structures (tissues, organs).

Each tissue cell not only connects with neighboring cells, but also interacts with the intercellular substance, using it to receive nutrients, signal molecules (hormones, mediators), and so on. Through chemical substances delivered to all tissues and organs of the body, is carried out humoral type of regulation (from Latin humor- liquid).

Another way of regulation, as mentioned above, is carried out with the help of the nervous system. Nerve impulses always reach their target hundreds or thousands of times faster than delivery of chemicals to organs or tissues. Nervous and humoral ways of regulating the functions of organs and systems are closely interconnected. However, the very formation of most chemicals and their release into the blood are under constant control of the nervous system.

Cell, fabric - these are the first levels of organization of living organisms , but even at these stages it is possible to identify general mechanisms of regulation that ensure the vital activity of organs, organ systems and the body as a whole.

Comparison of the structure of tissues of multicellular organisms (for example: plants, fungi, animals and humans). Types of tissues and their functions

Laboratory work

Biology and genetics

Laboratory work No. 3 Topic: Comparison of the structure of tissues of multicellular organisms for example: plants, fungi, animals and humans. Types of tissues and their functions. Tissue is a group of cells and intercellular substance combined general structure function and origin...

Lab #3

Subject : Comparison of the structure of tissues of multicellular organisms (for example: plants, fungi, animals and humans).Types of tissues and their functions.

Textile is a group of cells and intercellular substance, united by a common structure, function and origin. There are four main types of tissues in the human body: epithelial (integumentary), connective, muscle and nervous.

Target : learn to find structural features of cells of various organisms, compare them with each other; study the structure various types tissues and determine their functions; master the terminology of the topic.

Equipment : microscopes, slides and coverslips, glass rods, micropreparations of cells of multicellular animals, microscopic preparations of epithelial, muscle, connective, nervous tissue.WITH tacany with water, elodea leaf, yeast, hay stick culture.

Safety: work carefully with a microscope; be responsible for the rules of working with him; when transferring the lens to a high magnification, carefully work with the screw so as not to crush the micropreparation.

PROGRESS

Work 1.

1. Prepare a preparation of elodea leaf cells. To do this, separate the leaf from the stem, put it in a drop of water on a glass slide and cover with a coverslip.
2. Examine the preparation under a microscope. Find chloroplasts in cells.
3. Sketch the structure of the Elodea leaf cell. Write captions for your drawing.

1. membrane
2.chloroplasts
3.cytoplasm
4.core
5.vacuole

4. Consider Figure 1.

5. Make a conclusion about the shape, size of cellsvarious plant organs

Rice. 1. Color, shape and size of cells of different plant organs

The structure of a watermelon cell

O - cell membrane; P - granular wall layer of protoplasm; T - strands of protoplasm; yak - nuclear pocket (accumulation of protoplasm, in which the nucleus lies ( I ) with nucleolus and plastids); V - vacuoles (according to Rostovtsev and Komarnitsky).

A living cell from a coconut shell with branched canals and a very thick lignified shell: 1 - pore canals filled with cytoplasm; 2 - core; 3 - layered cell membrane; 4 - cytoplasm.

plant leaf pulp cell

Stinging nettle leaf hair:

1 - hair base, 2 - stinging cell, 3 - nucleus, 4 - vacuole, 5 - cytoplasm, 6 - broken tip of stinging cell.

Work 2.

1. Remove a little mucus with a teaspoon inside cheeks.

2. Place the slime on a glass slide and tint with blue ink diluted in water. Cover the specimen with a cover slip.

3. Examine the preparation under a microscope.

Job 3

Consider a ready-made micropreparation of cells of a multicellular animal organism.

Compare what you saw in the lesson with the image of objects on the tables.

bacterial cell It has a dense capsid membrane, ribosomes, a free DNA helix.	plant cell It has a cellulose membrane, vacuole, plastids, a formed nucleus and other organisms.	animal cage It has a glycogen membrane, the absence of plastids and vacuoles, the storage substance is glycogen.

Compare these cells with each other.

Record the comparison results in table 1

Comparison Traits	bacterial cell	plant cell	animal cage	Functions of organelles (not necessary additionally)
Core	No	Eat	Eat	Storage of hereditary information, DNA synthesis
cell membrane	Eat mureic	Eat Cellulosic	Eat glycogenic	transport, barrier, Mechanical, receptor, energy
Capsule	Eat	No	No	Additional protection protection against phagocytosis
cell wall	Eat	Eat	Eat glycocalyx	Polysaccharide membrane above the cell membrane, regulation of water and gases in the cell
Contacts between cells	No	There are plasmodesmata	There are Desmosomes	Binds cells together nutrients between cells
Chromosome	Nucleotide	Eat	Eat	DNA nucleoprotein complex
Plasmids	Eat	No	No	Storage of genomic information DNA encoding
Cytoplasm	Eat	Eat	Eat	Contains organelles and a complex of nutrients
Mitochondria	No	Eat	Yes (except bacteria)	Carry out respiration and ATP synthesis
golgi apparatus	No	Eat	Eat	Synthesis of complex proteins and polysaccharides
Endoplasmic reticulum	No	Eat	Eat	Synthesis and transport of proteins and lipids
Centriole	No	Eat	Eat	Forms spindle during meiosis
plastids	No	Yes (leukoplasts chloroplasts chromoplasts)	No	Structures in which photosynthesis occurs and which give color
Ribosomes	Eat	Eat	Eat	Carry out protein synthesis
Lysosomes	No	Eat	Eat	Split various substances
Peroxisomes	No	Eat	Eat	Lipid transport
Vacuole	No	Eat	No	Water supply
cytoskeleton	Only some	Eat	Eat	Support propulsion system cells
drinking	Eat	No	No	Serve to attach to other organisms
Organelles to move	Eat	Eat	Eat	Cell movement

Answer the questions:

What are the similarities and differences between cells?

All these cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, hereditary material in the form of chromosomes, ribosomes, and inclusions. Eukaryotes (everyone except bacteria) have mitochondria, ER, Golgi complex, lysosomes, nucleus, centrioles. Plant cells, unlike animals, have vacuoles, plastids, and a cellulose membrane. Bacteria have the most primitive structure, consisting of a murein shell, capsule, and ribosome.

What are the reasons for the similarities and differences of cells different organisms?

The fact that any living organism consists of cells, but cells perform different functions.

Job 4

I. Epithelial tissue

1. Consider a micropreparation of epithelial tissue. Sketch.

2. Name the types of epithelial tissue.

Classification of epithelial tissues:

1. integumentary epithelium- forming external and internal covers;
2. glandular epithelium- make up most of the body's glands.
3. Ciliated epitheliumforming the inner lining of the respiratory tract (detains dust and other foreign bodies with the help of mobile cilia).

Morphological classification of integumentary epithelium:

• single-layer squamous epithelium, endothelium - lines all vessels;
• mesothelium - lines the natural cavities of a person: pleural, abdominal, pericardial;
• single-layer cubic epithelium - the epithelium of the renal tubules;
• single-layer single-row cylindrical epithelium - the nuclei are located on the same level;
• Single-layer multi-row cylindrical epithelium - the nuclei are located at different levels (lung epithelium);
• stratified squamous keratinizing epithelium - skin;
• stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium - oral cavity, esophagus, vagina;
• transitional epithelium - the shape of the cells of this epithelium depends on the functional state of the organ, for example, the bladder.

The glandular epithelium forms the vast majority of the body's glands. It consists of: glandular cells - glandulocytes; basement membrane.

Classification of glands by the number of cells:

1. unicellular (goblet gland);
2. multicellular - the vast majority of glands.

By the method of removing the secret from the gland and by structure:

• exocrine glands - have an excretory duct;
• endocrine glands - do not have an excretory duct and secrete hormones (hormones) into the blood and lymph.

According to the method of secretion from the glandular cell:

• merocrine - sweat and salivary glands;
• apocrine - mammary gland, sweat glands of the armpits;
• holocrine - sebaceous glands of the skin.

3. List the functions of epithelial tissue.

Functions of epithelial tissue:

• protective function against mechanical damage
• participates in metabolism, at the initial and final stages
• regulate the constancy of the internal environment of the body, metabolism, etc..

II. Connective tissue

1. Consider a preparation of connective tissue. Sketch.

2. Name the types of connective tissue.

Most of the hard connective tissue is fibrous (from lat. fiber fiber): consists of fibers collagen and elastin . The connective tissue is bone, cartilage, fat and others. Connective tissue also includes blood and lymph . Therefore, connective tissue is the only tissue that is present in the body in 4 types - fibrous (ligaments), solid (bones), gel-like (cartilage) and liquid (blood, lymph, as well as intercellular, cerebrospinal and synovial and other fluids).

3. List the functions of connective tissue.

Connective tissue functions:

1) gives strength to organs, forming the basis of tendons and skin

2) performs a supporting function

3) provides transport of nutrients and oxygen throughout the body.

4) contains a supply of nutrients

III. Muscle

1. Consider a micropreparation of muscle tissue. Sketch.

1. Name the types of muscle tissue.

Types of muscle tissue

• Smooth muscle tissuecells are mononuclear, located in layers in the walls of blood vessels, airways, bladder, digestive tract and other hollow internal organs.
• Cross-striped skeletal muscle tissuecells are multinucleated, form the muscles of the body, setting the human skeleton in motion.
• Cross-striated cardiac muscle tissueforms the heart muscle, which contracts involuntarily.

3. List the functions of muscle tissue.

Functions of muscle tissue:

Motor. Protective. Heat exchange. You can also highlight another function - mimic (social). The muscles of the face, controlling facial expressions, transmit information to others.

IV. nervous tissue

1. Consider a micropreparation of nervous tissue. Sketch.

1. Name the types of nervous tissue.

Neurons - perform the main function.
Neuroglia - perform an auxiliary function (surround neurons, protect them and provide them with support, protection and nutrition, there are 10 times more of them than neurons).

3. The function of the nervous tissue.

Functions of nervous tissue:

• excitability and conduction. Excitation that appears under the influence of various stimuli environment transmitted to the CNS. Then it provides the body's response to this irritation.

Questions

1. What tissue are glands?

Glands belong to epithelial tissue.

1. What is the structure of connective tissue?

Feature: there is much more intercellular substance than cellular elements.

1. What organs contain smooth muscle tissue?

They are located in layers in the walls of blood vessels, airways, bladder, digestive tract and other hollow internal organs.

4. Thanks to the contractions of which muscles, movement is carried out?

Due to the contraction of skeletal muscles.

5. What tissue is characterized by electrical signals?

for nervous tissue.

Problematic issues

1. What tissues are involved in wound healing?

connective tissue and epithelial

2. What tissues lack blood vessels?

epithelial tissues. The epithelium lines the surface of the human body, the inner surface of hollow organs and forms most of the body's glands. The epithelium is keratinized and non-keratinized. The epithelium is a layer of cells that are located on the basement membrane. They are devoid of blood vessels and have a high ability to regenerate.Cartilage, lens, cornea are devoid of blood and lymphatic vessels.

Conclusion:

Considered the structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. We learned to find differences between cells of different organisms and highlight their similarities, studied the structure and functions of cell organelles and the cell itself as a whole.

Considered the structure of various types of tissues of the animal body. We studied the structure and functions of the nervous, epithelial, muscle and connective tissues and their location in the human body.

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The body of many living organisms is made up of tissues. Exceptions are all unicellular, as well as some multicellular, for example, which include algae, as well as lichens. In this article, we will look at the types of fabrics. Biology studies this topic, namely its section - histology. The name of this branch comes from the Greek words "cloth" and "knowledge". There are many types of fabrics. Biology studies both plants and animals. They have significant differences. biology has been studied for a long time. For the first time they were described even by such ancient scientists as Aristotle and Avicenna. Biology continues to study tissues and types of tissues further - in the 19th century they were studied by such famous scientists as Moldengauer, Mirbel, Hartig and others. With their participation, new types of cell aggregates were discovered and their functions were studied.

Types of tissues - biology

First of all, it should be noted that the tissues that are characteristic of plants are not characteristic of animals. Therefore, biology can divide the types of tissues into two large groups: plant and animal. Both combine a large number of varieties. We will consider them further.

Types of animal tissues

Let's start with what is closer to us. Since we belong to the Animal kingdom, our body consists precisely of tissues, the varieties of which will now be described. Types of animal tissues can be combined into four large groups: epithelial, muscle, connective and nervous. The first three are subdivided into many varieties. Only the last group is represented by only one type. Next, we consider all types of tissues, the structure and functions that are characteristic of them, in order.

nervous tissue

Since it comes in only one variety, let's start with it. The cells in this tissue are called neurons. Each of them consists of a body, an axon and dendrites. The latter are processes along which an electrical impulse is transmitted from cell to cell. A neuron has one axon - it is a long process, there are several dendrites, they are smaller than the first one. The cell body contains the nucleus. In addition, the so-called Nissl bodies are located in the cytoplasm - an analogue of the endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria that produce energy, as well as neurotubules that are involved in conducting an impulse from one cell to another.

Depending on their functions, neurons are divided into several types. The first type is sensory, or afferent. They conduct impulses from the sense organs to the brain. The second type of neurons are associative, or switching. They analyze the information that came from the senses, and develop a response impulse. These types of neurons are found in the brain and spinal cord. The last variety is motor, or afferent. They conduct an impulse from associative neurons to organs. Also in the nervous tissue there is an intercellular substance. It performs very important functions, namely, it provides a fixed arrangement of neurons in space, participates in the removal of unnecessary substances from the cell.

epithelial

These are types of tissues, the cells of which are tightly adjacent to each other. They can have a variety of shapes, but are always close. All different types of tissues of this group are similar in that there is little intercellular substance in them. It is mainly presented in the form of a liquid, in some cases it may not be. These are types of body tissues that provide its protection, and also perform a secretory function.

This group includes several varieties. This is a flat, cylindrical, cubic, sensory, ciliated and glandular epithelium. From the name of each one can understand what form of cells they consist of. different types epithelial tissues differ in their location in the body. So, flat lines the cavities of the upper organs of the digestive tract - oral cavity and esophagus. Cylindrical epithelium is found in the stomach and intestines. Cubic can be found in renal tubules. The sensory one lines the nasal cavity; there are special villi on it that provide the perception of odors. The cells of the ciliated epithelium, as its name implies, have cytoplasmic cilia. This type of tissue lines the airways below the nasal cavity. The cilia that each cell has perform a cleansing function - they to some extent filter the air that passes through the organs covered by this type of epithelium. And the last type of this group of tissues is the glandular epithelium. Its cells perform a secretory function. They are found in the glands, as well as in the cavity of some organs, such as the stomach. The cells of this type of epithelium produce hormones, gastric juice, milk, sebum and many other substances.

Muscle tissues

This group is divided into three types. The muscle is smooth, striated and cardiac. All muscle tissues are similar in that they consist of long cells - fibers, they contain a very large number of mitochondria, since they need a lot of energy to move. lines the cavities of internal organs. We cannot control the contraction of such muscles ourselves, since they are innervated by the autonomic nervous system.

Cells of striated muscle tissue differ in that they contain more mitochondria than the first. This is because they require more energy. Striated muscles can contract much faster than smooth muscles. It is made up of skeletal muscles. They are innervated by the somatic nervous system, so we can consciously control them. Muscular heart tissue combines some of the characteristics of the first two. It is able to contract just as actively and quickly as the striated one, but it is innervated by the autonomic nervous system, just like the smooth one.

Connective tissues and their functions

All fabrics in this group are characterized big amount intercellular substance. In some cases, it appears in a liquid state of aggregation, in some - in a liquid, sometimes - in the form of an amorphous mass. Seven types belong to this group. It is dense and loose fibrous, bone, cartilaginous, reticular, fatty, blood. In the first variety, fibers predominate. It is located around the internal organs. Its functions are to give them elasticity and protect them. In loose fibrous tissue, the amorphous mass predominates over the fibers themselves. It completely fills the gaps between the internal organs, while the dense fibrous forms only peculiar shells around the latter. She also plays a protective role.

Bone and form the skeleton. It performs a supporting function in the body and partly protective. Phosphates and calcium compounds predominate in the cells and intercellular substance of the bone tissue. The exchange of these substances between the skeleton and blood is regulated by hormones such as calcitonin and parathyroid hormone. The first maintains the normal state of the bones, participating in the conversion of phosphorus and calcium ions into organic compounds stored in the skeleton. And the second, on the contrary, with a lack of these ions in the blood, provokes their receipt from the tissues of the skeleton.

Blood contains a lot of liquid intercellular substance, it is called plasma. Her cells are quite peculiar. They are divided into three types: platelets, erythrocytes and leukocytes. The former are responsible for blood clotting. During this process, a small blood clot is formed, which prevents further blood loss. Red blood cells are responsible for transporting oxygen throughout the body and providing it to all tissues and organs. They may contain agglutinogens, which exist in two types - A and B. In the blood plasma, the content of alpha or beta agglutinins is possible. They are antibodies to agglutinogens. These substances are used to determine the blood group. In the first group, agglutinogens are not observed on erythrocytes, and agglutinins of two types are present in the plasma at once. The second group has agglutinogen A and agglutinin beta. The third is B and alpha. There are no agglutinins in the plasma of the fourth, but both A and B agglutinogens are on the erythrocytes. If A meets alpha or B with beta, the so-called agglutination reaction occurs, as a result of which the erythrocytes die and blood clots form. This can happen if you transfuse the wrong type of blood. Considering that only erythrocytes are used during transfusion (plasma is screened out at one of the stages of processing donor blood), then a person with the first group can only be transfused with the blood of his own group, with the second - the blood of the first and second groups, with the third - the first and third groups, from the fourth - any group.

Also, erythrocytes may contain antigens D, which determines the Rh factor, if present, the latter is positive, if absent, it is negative. Lymphocytes are responsible for immunity. They are divided into two main groups: B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes. The first are produced in the bone marrow, the second - in the thymus (a gland located behind the sternum). T-lymphocytes are divided into T-inducers, T-helpers and T-suppressors. Reticular connective tissue consists of a large amount of intercellular substance and stem cells. They form blood cells. This tissue forms the basis of the bone marrow and other hematopoietic organs. There are also cells which contain lipids. It performs a spare, heat-insulating and sometimes protective function.

How are plants arranged?

These organisms, like animals, consist of sets of cells and intercellular substance. We will describe the types of plant tissues further. All of them are divided into several large groups. These are educational, integumentary, conductive, mechanical and basic. The types of plant tissues are numerous, since several belong to each group.

Educational

These include apical, lateral, intercalary and wound. Their main function is to ensure plant growth. They are made up of small cells that actively divide and then differentiate to form any other type of tissue. The apical ones are located at the tips of the stems and roots, the lateral ones are inside the stem, under the integumentary ones, the intercalary ones are at the bases of the internodes, the wound ones are at the site of damage.

coverslips

They are characterized by thick cell walls made of cellulose. They play a protective role. There are three types: epidermis, crust, cork. The first covers all parts of the plant. It may have a protective wax coating, it also has hairs, stomata, cuticles, and pores. The crust differs in that it has no pores, in all other characteristics it is similar to the epidermis. Cork is the dead covering tissue that forms the bark of trees.

Conductive

These tissues come in two varieties: xylem and phloem. Their function is the transport of substances dissolved in water from the root to other organs and vice versa. Xylem is formed from vessels formed by dead cells with hard shells, there are no transverse membranes. They transport fluid upwards.

Phloem - sieve tubes - living cells in which there are no nuclei. The transverse membranes have large pores. With the help of this type of plant tissue, substances dissolved in water are transported down.

Mechanical

They also come in two types: and sclerenchyma. Their main task is to ensure the strength of all organs. Collenchyma is represented by living cells with lignified shells that fit tightly to each other. Sclerenchyma consists of elongated dead cells with hard shells.

Main

As their name implies, they form the basis of all plant organs. They are assimilation and reserve. The first are found in the leaves and the green part of the stem. Their cells contain chloroplasts, which are responsible for photosynthesis. Organic matter accumulates in the storage tissue, in most cases it is starch.

Animal tissue is a collection of cells that are connected by an intercellular substance and are intended for a specific purpose. It is divided into many types, each of which has its own characteristics. Animal tissue under a microscope can look completely different, depending on the type and purpose. Let's take a closer look at the different types.

Tissue of the animal body: varieties and features

There are four main types: connective, epithelial, nervous and muscular. Each of them is divided into several types, depending on the location and some distinctive features.

Connective animal tissue

It is characterized by a large amount of intercellular substance - it can be both liquid and solid. The first type of this type of tissue is bone. The intercellular substance in this case is solid. It consists of minerals, mainly phosphorus and calcium salts. Also cartilaginous animal tissue belongs to the connective type. It differs in that its elastic. It, in turn, is divided into types such as hyaline, elastic and fibrous cartilage. The most common in the body is the first type, it is part of the trachea, bronchi, larynx, large bronchi. Elastic cartilages form the ears, medium-sized bronchi. Fibrous are included in the structure of intervertebral discs - they are located at the junction of tendons and ligaments with hyaline cartilage.

Connective refers to and in which they are stored. In addition, this includes blood and lymph. The first of these is characterized by specific cells called blood cells. They are of three types: erythrocytes, platelets and lymphocytes. The former are responsible for the transport of oxygen throughout the body, the latter for blood clotting in case of damage to the skin, and the third perform an immune function. Both of these connective tissues are special in that their intercellular substance is fluid. Lymph is involved in the metabolic process, it is responsible for returning various chemical compounds from tissues back to the blood, such as all kinds of toxins, salts, and some proteins. The connectives are also loose fibrous, dense fibrous, and the latter differs in that it consists of collagen fibers. It acts as a basis for such internal organs as the spleen, bone marrow, lymph nodes, etc.

Epithelium

This type of tissue is characterized by the fact that the cells are located very tightly to each other. The epithelium mainly performs a protective function: it consists of the skin, it can line the organs both from the outside and from the inside. It is of many types: cylindrical, cubic, single-layered, multi-layered, ciliated, glandular, sensitive, flat. The first two are named so because of the shape of the cells. The ciliary has small villi; it lines the intestinal cavity. All the glands that produce enzymes, hormones, etc. consist of the following type of epithelium. The sensitive one acts as a receptor, it lines the nasal cavity. is located inside the alveoli, blood vessels. Cubic is found in organs such as the kidneys, eyes, thyroid gland.

Nervous animal tissue

It is made up of spindle-shaped cells called neurons. They have a complex structure, built from a body, an axon (a long outgrowth) and dendrites (several short ones). These tissue formations are interconnected, signals are transmitted through them, like wires. Between them there is a lot of intercellular substance that supports the neurons in the right position and nourishes them.

Muscle tissues

They are divided into three types, each of which has its own characteristics. The first of these is smooth muscle tissue. It consists of long cells - fibers. This type of muscle tissue lines such internal organs as the stomach, intestines, uterus, etc. They are able to contract, but the person (or animal) himself is unable to control and manage these muscles on his own. The next type is striated fabric. It contracts many times faster than the first one, since it contains more actin and myosin proteins, thanks to which this happens.

Striated muscle tissue makes up skeletal muscle, which the body can control at its discretion. The last type - cardiac tissue - differs in that it contracts faster than smooth tissue, has more actin and myosin, but is not subject to conscious control by a person (or animal), that is, it combines some features of the two types described above. All three are made up of long cells, also called fibers, that usually contain large numbers of mitochondria (the organelles that produce energy).