The youngest research method in geography. Traditional and new methods of geographical research. Planar coordinate systems

Test tasks.

1. The answer to the question: "What features does the Amazon River have?" gives

a) descriptive method

b) cartographic method

c) space method

d) observational method

2. The heyday of cartography in Europe was associated with

a) the creation of writing

b) the era of the great geographical discoveries

c) the invention of paper

d) the invention of the wheel

3. Space methods began to develop

a) in late XIX century

b) at the beginning of the 20th century

c) in the second half of the 20th century

d) at the beginning of the XXI century

4. Scientific expeditions aimed at exploring the Earth began to be organized in

c) 18th century

d) 19th century

5. Which of the following books can enrich your knowledge about the nature of the Earth?

a) J. Rowling "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban"

b) E. Burroughs "Princess of Mars"

c) T. Mine Reid "In the wilds of South Africa"

d) J. R. R. Tolkien "The Lord of the Rings"

6. Arrange the names of the methods of geographical research in the order of their occurrence. Put the corresponding letters in the table.

a) space b) descriptive c) cartographic

Thematic workshop.

Here is a short excerpt from a book about Eurasia. Read it and answer the questions.

In the southern part of Eurasia, the highest mountains of the planet, the Himalayas, stretch from west to east. As many as 14 peaks in these mountains rise above 8 km. And the highest of them - Everest, or Chomolungma - has a height of 8848 m.

In the Himalayas, between China and India, the country of Nepal is located, according to legend, almost 2.5 thousand years ago, Prince Siddhartha Guatama was born here, who was destined to become the founder of one of the three world religions - Buddhism.

The capital of Nepal, the city of Kathmandu, is famous for its numerous Buddhist temples and monasteries, many of which are more than 2,000 years old. The city is located at a high altitude and is surrounded by steep slopes and deep chasms. Previously, there weren’t big roads to the city, but only narrow paths along which it was not easy for a person to pass. Therefore, when in 1954 the King of Nepal wanted to get a car (before that he went exclusively on foot), the rate of that car turned out to be very difficult. The car had to be completely disassembled in parts, moved along the mountain paths to the city and reassembled there. So the first car appeared in Kathmandu.

1. What method of geographical research was used in compiling this text?

observation method.

2. Which of the geographical information can be verified using other methods of geographical research?

In the southern part of Eurasia, mountains stretch from west to east - the Himalayas. Nepal is located in the Himalayas between China and India.

3. What is the height of the highest peak on Earth?

4. How many cars were there in Kathmandu in 1943?

5. Who is the ruler of Nepal?

Cartographic workshop.

Name the geographical objects indicated on the map by numbers

1. Mainland Australia.

2. Hindustan Peninsula.

3. Atlantic Ocean.

4. The island of Madagascar.

5. Mainland South America.

6. Arabian Peninsula

Methods of geographical research

Methods of geographical research - ways of obtaining geographic information. The main methods of geographical research are:

1) cartographic method. The map, according to the figurative expression of one of the founders of Russian economic geography - Nikolai Nikolaevich Baransky - is the second language of geography. The map is a unique source of information! It gives an idea of the relative position of objects, their size, the degree of distribution of a particular phenomenon, and much more.

2) historical method. Everything on Earth develops historically. Nothing arises from scratch, therefore, for the knowledge of modern geography, knowledge of history is necessary: the history of the development of the Earth, the history of mankind.

3) statistical method. It is impossible to talk about countries, peoples, natural objects without using statistical data: what is the height or depth, area of the territory, reserves of natural resources, population, demographic indicators, absolute and relative indicators of production, etc.

4) Economic and mathematical. If there are numbers, then there are calculations: calculations of population density, birth rate, mortality and natural population growth, migration balance, resource endowment, GDP per capita, etc.

5) geographic zoning method. The allocation of physical-geographical (natural) and economic regions is one of the methods for studying geographical science.

6). Comparative geographical. Everything is subject to comparison more or less, advantageous or disadvantageous, faster or slower. Only comparison makes it possible to more fully describe and evaluate the similarities and differences of certain objects, as well as explain the reasons for these differences.

7) Method of field research and observations. Geography cannot be studied only sitting in classrooms and classrooms.

What methods of geographical research do you know?

What you see with your own eyes is the most valuable geographical information. Description of geographical objects, collection of samples, observation of phenomena - all this is the factual material, which is the subject of study.

8) Remote observation method. Modern aerial and space photography is a great help in the study of geography, in the creation of geographical maps, in the development of the national economy and nature protection, in solving many problems of mankind.

9) Method of geographical modeling. The creation of geographic models is an important method for the study of geography. The simplest geographic model is the globe.

10) Geographic forecast. Modern geographical science should not only describe the studied objects and phenomena, but also predict the consequences that humanity can come to in the course of its development. Geographic forecast helps to avoid
many undesirable phenomena, reduce the negative impact of activities on nature, rationally use resources, solve global problems

Chapter 1. Some concepts of geographical analysis

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A map is a graphical representation of a part earth's surface. The structure of the map is such that it easily conveys information to the user. The map contains a series of layers or coverages that are often combined to produce the final result. The map also includes descriptive information that helps interpret the content of the map.

The main components of the map:

Geographic features:

Areas (area features) are polygon features, such as land use parcels. The boundaries of polygons are represented by lines. Polygons can be filled with different colors and types of hatching, which depend on the attributes.

Line elements are arcs, such as roads or streams. Arcs are drawn with lines and labeled using attribute values.

Point Features - Represent point features or polygon labels. They are depicted with signs, signed using the value of the attributes.

Cartological elements:

Headings and explanatory inscriptions describe the purpose of the card and are depicted using text characters.

Frames form boundaries and separate parts of the map and are represented by lines.

Legends describe symbols used to represent geographic features and are depicted using lines, hatching, or signs and text symbols.

The north arrows and scale bars describe the orientation and scale of the map. They are depicted using lines, hatching and text symbols.

Geographic analysis allows you to study real processes through the development and application of models. Such models reveal trends in geographic data and thus make new information available. GIS enhances this process by providing tools that can be combined in different sequences to build new models. These models can reveal new or previously unrecognized unidentified relationships within or between datasets, thereby improving our knowledge of the real world.

The results of geographic analysis can be presented in the form of maps and reports. A map is better used to show geographic relationships, while reports are more suitable for presenting tabular data and documenting calculated values.

Maps and reports enable the exchange of data contained in a geographic database.

system of real geographical coordinates

Most maps depict coordinate data using one of the accepted global coordinate systems, such as Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), Albert Conic Equal Area, or Polar Stereographic. These are examples of map projections that are used to represent spherical geographic features on a flat surface. The projection is used to provide an appropriate relationship between the location on the map and the true location on the earth's surface.

Latitude and longitude.

The most familiar system for describing position in space is the system of latitudes and longitudes. This system can be used to locate points anywhere on the earth's surface. Latitude and longitude are angular values measured from the center of the earth to a point on the earth's surface. Latitude can be north and south, longitude - west and east. A cartographic grid (grid of latitudes and longitudes) can be overlaid on the earth's surface to describe a location geographically. Lines of longitude, sometimes called meridians, begin and end at the North and South Poles. The lines of latitude, sometimes called parallels, encircle the globe in parallel circles.

Latitude and longitude are traditionally measured in degrees, minutes and seconds (DMS). Latitude equal to 0 degrees is located on the equator, 90 degrees.

1.4 Methods of geographical research

- at the North Pole, -90 degrees. — at the South Pole. Longitude 0° is the Prime Meridian, which starts at the North Pole, passes through Greenwich in England, and ends at the South Pole. Longitude is positive, up to 180 degrees, if moving east of Greenwich, and negative, up to -180 degrees, if moving west of Greenwich. For example, Australia, which is south of the equator and east of Greenwich, has a positive longitude and a negative longitude.

However, latitude and longitude are a geographic descriptive system, not a two-dimensional planar coordinate system. Obviously, the meridians converge at the poles, but diverge as they approach the equator. Thus, the length of one degree of longitude will be different depending on the latitude at which it is measured. For example, one degree of longitude at the equator is 111 km long, but the length of one degree of longitude at the North and South Poles approaches zero. Since the units of measurement are not related to the standard length, they cannot be used to accurately measure distance. And since this system measures angles from the center of the earth, and not distances on the earth's surface, it is not a flat coordinate system.

Planar coordinate systems

Planar coordinate systems (Cartesian coordinate systems) have certain properties that make them suitable for representing real geographic coordinates on a map.

There are two dimensions: X measures the distance in the horizontal direction, and Y measures the distance in the vertical direction.

Measures of lengths, angles and areas remain constant across all measurements.

There are various mathematical formulas for mapping the spherical surface of the earth onto a flat two-dimensional surface.

GIS, like flat maps, use various flat coordinate systems to map the earth's surface. Each of the used coordinate systems is based on a certain cartographic surface.

Map projections

Since the earth's surface is a spheroid, mathematical transformations must be used to create a flat map of a spherical surface. These mathematical transformations are called map projections. Because each basemap is stored in a specific projection, you must define the projection of the basemap before entering it into the system. It is important to keep in mind the following:

Any two-dimensional representation of the earth's surface always introduces distortions in some parameters, either in shape, area, distance or direction.

Different projections introduce different distortions. The characteristics of each projection make it suitable for some applications and unsuitable for others.

Laws and basic provisions of sciences - the principle of universal interconnection and interdependence- primarily applicable to geography. Patterns established by geography are subject to general laws universal interconnection and interdependence of phenomena: the universal connection of phenomena, the movement, unity and struggle of opposites, the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, the negation of negation.

important in geography systems approach. It defines the specifics of scientific methodology in geography, because each object, or phenomenon, or process, or complex is considered as complex education, which consists of several blocks. And these blocks interact with each other. In other words: with a systematic approach, you need to see all the versatility object in its internal and external relationships, represent as a structural part of a larger whole and as a set of smaller structural parts.

The main methods of geography, with which you can solve the problem of the connection of various natural phenomena, the problem of metabolism and energy - through. These include methods: comparative descriptive, geophysical, geochemical, paleogeographic, cartographic, aerospace. Widely used in geography and methods or directions, such as geoinformation, mathematical, modeling method, balance method.

Comparative descriptive method- the oldest in physical geography. The very essence of the science of geography presupposes it not only as the main, but also the main method, both in the past, and in the present and future. Comparison performs several functions: it determines the area of similar phenomena and objects, delimits seemingly close objects and phenomena, makes the unfamiliar familiar through a system of images. The comparative descriptive method was for a long time limited to two questions: what? Where? In this regard, geography was seen as a purely chorological science (choror - place, space).

At present, the comparative descriptive method must answer at least five questions: what, where, when, in what state, in what relationships? “When” means time, a historical approach to the object under study, “in what state” - modern dynamics, trends in the development of the object, “in what relationships” - the impact of the object on the immediate environment and the reverse effect on the object.

Expeditionary method studies are called field. The field material collected on expeditions is the bread and butter of geography, its foundation. It is on this foundation that the theory of science rests.

Expeditions as a method of collecting material originate from ancient times. Herodotus in the middle of the 5th century BC, he made many years of travel to other countries. In particular, his visit to Scythia (the Black Sea steppes) allowed him to give a colorful description of it - flatness, treelessness, harsh climate.

The era of the VGO at the end of the 11th - 17th centuries is selfless expeditions in search of new lands (Columbus, Magellan, etc.). Great Northern Expedition (VSE) in Russia (1733 - 1743). It is put on a par with the era of the VGO. Even by modern standards, it seems to be a grandiose event - a large number of participants, diversity and a high volume of tasks. During the ESE, also known as the second Kamchatka, the nature of Kamchatka was studied, the northwest of North America was discovered, the coast of the Arctic Ocean from the Kara Sea to the East Siberian was described. The extreme northern point of Asia, Cape Chelyuskin, has been mapped. A deep mark in the history of Russian geography was left Academic expeditions 1768 - 1774 They were complex, their task was to describe the nature, population and economy of a vast territory - Europe, Russia, the Urals, part of Siberia. The expedition was attended by P.S. Pallas, I.I. Lepekhin, S. Gmelin and other prominent scientists. “Devotion to science, courage, the ability to see in nature the main thing, new and interconnected. The talent of a prose writer - all this is inherent in the best representatives of a large army of geographers - travelers - N.M. Przhevalsky (1839 - 1888) - studies of Central Asia, D. Livingston (1813 - 1873) - the discoverer of lakes and rivers in South and East Africa. Full of tragedy, the last diary entries of Robert Scott (1868 - 1912), who froze to death on his way back from South Pole. Their scientific, diary entries, like the works of many other travelers, are read in one breath, leaving no one indifferent ”(F.N. Milkov. General Earth Science. M. Higher School, 1990, p. 270).

As geographical science differentiated, expeditions became more specialized, with a limited range of tasks. At the same time, some of the questions were relegated to geology, biology, geophysics. At the same time, many expeditions in our time are formed by complex geographic ones. Geologists, climatologists, hydrologists, botanists, and zoologists take part here. For example, the expedition of SOPSA - a council for the study of productive forces. SOPS was attached to the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences. They covered large areas: Kola Peninsula, Karakum, Bashkiria, Yakutia, Tuva.

Of particular interest are ships of science on the oceans under the flags of different countries. In the Central Arctic - the drift of the SP. – 1937 In Antarctica there is a network of scientific stations of the USSR, USA, Great Britain, Austria, France, Japan, New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Chile, South Africa. Of the six Soviet stations operating (1998) in Antarctica, the most extreme conditions“Vostok” is located - it is located in East Antarctica on a high glacial plateau (3,488 m) in the area of \u200b\u200bthe magnetic and earthly poles of cold.

The expeditionary method includes not only expeditions and field observations, but also physical-geographic stations. The initiative to create them belongs to A.A. Grigoriev. Stations are known: the Tien-Shan high-mountain station (IGAN), opened in 1945, the Altai glaciological station - opened by Professor M.V. Tronov in the post-war period.

Field expeditions are used - to solve, for example, local history issues, to place ponds, forest plantations. Scientific excursions - mini expeditions in higher education. They are connected with the educational practice of students - geographers.

Geophysical method - it is the study of landscape complexes by physical methods. Geophysics is the "physics of the Earth". At the level of modern physics, with the help of complex instruments, the most general properties of the matter of the Earth and the geographical shell are determined - mass, energy, forms of movement and transformation. At the level of modern physics, using complex instruments, the radiation and thermal conditions of the underlying surface, moistening conditions, the theoretical and water regime of soils, and the productivity of biocenoses - active transformers of solar energy are determined.

Geochemical method - it is the application of the laws of general chemistry to the study of landscapes. The founder of the method is the Soviet soil scientist and geographer G. G. Polynov. They were offered conjugate analysis method, which allows you to define the content and movement chemical elements from high places to low places.

Paleogeographic method is a geographical refraction of the historical method. All objects of geography, from the geographic envelope to a specific tract and facies, have their own history of development. Traces of the past can be traced in each natural-territorial complex (NTC). The paleographic method is a look back in order to better understand modern nature and to predict the future. Example: by analyzing the composition of rocks and fossil organisms in the history of the Earth, an alternation of two types of climatic zonality was revealed: thermal (thermal) and glacial. Over the past billion years, warm eras, with a maximum in the Eocene, Upper Cretaceous, Lower Carboniferous, have been replaced by glacial ones three times. The latter consisted of ice ages. A warm climate prevailed on Earth, and the share of ice ages proper accounted for less than 1/5 of the last billion years. As scientists suggest, we live, apparently, at the end of the last ice age, between two glacial maxima. It is difficult to say how realistic the forecast of the upcoming new glacial maximum is, especially since the anthropogenic impact on the climate is also great, but the scientifically based approach to what we can expect in the future deserves close attention.

cartographic method has two aspects:

1. preparatory, cameral stage, familiarization with the nature of the area in the literature, analysis of features, identification of gaps in the study of PTK;

2. creation of monographs, atlases, maps.

Atlases represent the most concentrated form of geographic information. For example, the Great Soviet Atlas of the World (vol. I, 1937), the three-volume marine atlas, the physical and geographical atlas of the world (1964). Over the past decades, a series of regional atlases have been published in our country: the atlas of the Altai Territory, the atlas of the Irkutsk region, the atlas of the Tyumen region, etc. Hundreds of special atlas maps provide a comprehensive picture of the geography of the world or regions. Maps and atlases are general geographical and sectoral. The latter include geological, soil-climatic, soil, agricultural, etc.

Aerospace method is closely related to the cartographic, thus, aerial and satellite images are ready-made maps, the geographical content of which must be able to read, reveal - decipher. Aerial photography has been widely used since the 1930s, and each aerial photograph is a finished model (volumetric) of the PTK. From aerial photographs, the boundaries and structure of the NTCs of the local level are easily visible, for example, river valleys, a gully, a glacier, an aspen bush, a takyr, an array of sands, etc. Determining these complexes on the ground would take a lot of time and would not be so accurate.

mathematical method- one of the methods that is used by a wide range of sciences. In geography, they are introduced rather slowly. The reasons for this: the complexity and lack of material collected according to a single program. Most often, in the study of PTCs, they are limited to the methods of mathematical statistics and probability theory. The usefulness of further mathematization of geography is indisputable. But this is possible only up to certain limits. We must not forget that mathematical methods in geography are only auxiliary.

Modeling method. Model - a graphical or cartographic representation of the STC or its individual blocks. The model simultaneously signifies a program for further research, but an ideal PTC model has not yet been created. Although work is underway.

balance method. This is one of the methods that bring geography closer to the exact sciences. It consists in a quantitative description of dynamic phenomena in terms of the movement of matter and energy in landscape complexes. Balances - radiation, thermal, water - have found wide application in geography. In addition, there are more narrow balances: groundwater balance, glacier mass balance, snow cover balance, ocean salt balance, biomass balance, humus balance, etc. Heat and water balance play an important role in the life of the entire PTK. How to display them in the general balance sheet? A partial solution gives a balance of moisture - difference between precipitation and evaporation over a period of time. The moisture balance can be translated into a moisture coefficient, meaning attitude atmospheric precipitation to evaporation (E 0). To the north of the forest-steppe, the moisture coefficient is above one, to the south it is below one. The balance method underlies the work of geographical stations and hospitals.

Man has always been interested in everything that surrounds him: minerals, rocks, water, fire, air, plants, animals.

Ancient scientists collected facts, and then they systematized and established patterns. In their work, they used different ways and methods, i.e., methods (from the Greek word "methodos" - the path of research, theory, teaching).

Like all sciences, geography has special research methods. Let's consider some of them.

Geographic Description

This method was usually used by explorers, navigators, travelers who recorded the first information about open lands and the peoples inhabiting them. They tried to answer the questions: where is it located? What does it look like? What features does it have?

Now this method is widely used by participants in field studies and expeditions studying the relief, the World Ocean, the Earth's atmosphere, as well as the Arctic and Antarctica.

cartographic method

The map is a special source of geographical knowledge. It reflects and systematizes information obtained through observations and descriptions.

The first geographical maps appeared in Ancient Greece in the VIII-VI centuries. BC uh... time went by. Maps were refined and improved. At present, computer maps are widely used.

Cartographers create various maps - geographic, climatic, minerals, etc. Thus, the cartographic research method is the use of maps for the scientific and practical knowledge of objects and phenomena depicted on them. It is an integral part of most geographic surveys.

Comparative geographical method

The comparative geographical method is one of the oldest in geography. It allows using comparison to identify the general and special in geographical objects, phenomena, processes.

Aerospace method

At present, this method has become one of the most important in geography. Observations and photographs from aircraft, satellites, space stations allow not only to compile very accurate maps, but also to find new mineral deposits, monitor human activities, pollution of the earth's surface, and obtain information about other planets of the solar system, about the Galaxy, the Universe.

Statistical method

The statistical method is used to analyze statistical - quantitative and qualitative - data. Statistical accounting was carried out in ancient times. For example, in ancient China, population censuses were conducted. Currently, the statistical method is used in almost all industries. In geography, statistical material is presented in the text of textbooks, in maps, as well as in the form of diagrams, graphs, tables.

How did ancient people study the Earth?
What is the method of geographical description?
What role does the cartographic method play in our time?
What does the aerospace method give to modern geography?
Are the methods of geographical research used by scientists of antiquity used in the age of computer technology?

Earth is a unique planet: only on it does life exist. closely interrelated, they modify and complement each other. The processes occurring in nature and changing it are divided into physical and biological. Man has a huge impact on changing the face of the Earth.

They are called natural sciences. These include astronomy, physics, chemistry, geography, biology, geology, ecology.

It forms a group of interrelated sciences, the number of which is constantly increasing. There are two main sections: physical and socio-economic geography.

Special methods of geographical research are geographical description, cartographic, comparative geographic, aerospace and statistical methods.

Basic concepts and terms of the section:

Live nature
inanimate nature
natural phenomena: physical, biological
natural Sciences
Physiography
socio-economic geography
methods of geographical research

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1) cartographic method. The map, according to the figurative expression of one of the founders of Russian economic geography - Nikolai Nikolaevich Baransky - is the second language of geography. The map is a unique source of information!

It gives an idea of the relative position of objects, their size, the degree of distribution of a particular phenomenon, and much more.

2) historical method. Everything on Earth develops historically. Nothing arises from scratch, therefore, for the knowledge of modern geography, knowledge of history is necessary: the history of the development of the Earth, the history of mankind.

3)Statistical Method. It is impossible to talk about countries, peoples, natural objects without using statistical data: what is the height or depth, area of the territory, reserves of natural resources, population, demographic indicators, absolute and relative indicators of production, etc.

4) Economics and Mathematics. If there are numbers, then there are calculations: calculations of population density, birth rate, mortality and natural population growth, migration balance, resource endowment, GDP per capita, etc.

5) Geographic zoning method. The allocation of physical-geographical (natural) and economic regions is one of the methods for studying geographical science.

6) Comparative geographical. Everything is comparable:
more or less, profitable or disadvantageous, faster or slower. Only comparison makes it possible to more fully describe and evaluate the similarities and differences of certain objects, as well as explain the reasons for these differences.

7)Method of field research and observations. Geography cannot be studied only sitting in classrooms and classrooms. What you see with your own eyes is the most valuable geographical information. Description of geographical objects, collection of samples, observation of phenomena - all this is the factual material, which is the subject of study.

8) remote observation method. Modern aerial and space photography is a great help in the study of geography, in the creation of geographical maps, in the development of the national economy and nature protection, in solving many problems of mankind.

9) Geographic modeling method. The creation of geographic models is an important method for the study of geography. The simplest geographic model is the globe.

10) Geographic forecast. Modern geographical science should not only describe the studied objects and phenomena, but also predict the consequences that humanity can come to in the course of its development. A geographic forecast helps to avoid many undesirable phenomena, reduce the negative impact of activities on nature, rationally use resources, and solve global problems.

Methods of geographical research and the main sources of geographic information wikipedia
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Methodology of geographical science

Method ( Greek methods) in science - this is a way to achieve the goal, a way of action; a way of knowing, studying the phenomena of nature and society.

The methods used in economic and geographical research are diverse and can be divided into two main groups: general scientific and private scientific (special).

The effectiveness and reliability of economic and geographical research and the conclusions formulated by science depend on the completeness of the reliance on methodological tools and the correctness of its choice (careful selection of the most effective methods) for each specific study.

General scientific methods:

— description(the oldest method used by geographers);

— cartographic method(this is a graphical way of presenting information about the location and development of natural demographic, socio-economic and other objects on certain territory). The cartographic method is often not only a means for revealing spatial relationships, but often the ultimate goal of the study. Baransky N.N.: "... any geographical research comes from the map and comes to the map, it begins with the map and ends with the map, the map is the second language of geography." A map is a mathematically defined, reduced, generalized image of the surface of the Earth, another celestial body or outer space, showing objects located or projected on them in the accepted system of signs. Types of cartographic ( map-analytical) methods:

o map demonstration (the map serves as a demonstration of the results obtained by other methods);

o cartometric (a map is used to obtain initial information and display final results);

o centrographic (the map provides initial information and is used to demonstrate the final result);

— comparative(comparative) method (serves to identify the diversity of forms and types of human activity in natural and socio-economic conditions). The comparative method consists in comparing countries, regions, cities, results of economic activity, development parameters, demographic characteristics. This method is the basis for forecasting by analogy with the development of socio-economic processes;

— historical(contributes to the understanding of territorial objects in space and time, helps to take into account the time factor in the processes of the territorial organization of society). The historical method consists in the analysis of the genesis of the system (location of productive forces): the emergence of the system, formation, cognition, development;

— quantitative methods:

o scoring method(used to assess natural resources and analyze the environmental situation);

o balance method(used in studies of dynamic territorial systems with established flows of resources and products). The balance method is the equalization of quantitative information about various aspects of the development of the studied object of a phenomenon or process. Of particular importance in economic and geographical research is the model intersectoral balance(MOB). The MOB was first developed by Soviet statisticians in 1924-1925. In the 1930s V. Leontiev (USA) proposed his own version of this model, adapted to the conditions of the capitalist economy (the "input-output" model). The main purpose of this model is to substantiate a rational version of the sectoral structure of the region's economy based on the optimization of intersectoral flows, minimizing costs and maximizing the final product;

o statistical method(operations with statistical information about socio-economic processes in the region). Especially widely used are the methods of calculating indices and selective study, correlation and regression analysis, the method of expert assessments;

— modeling, incl. mathematical (modeling of migration processes, urban systems, TPK). Modeling is one of the main categories of the theory of knowledge, the essence of which is the study of phenomena, processes or systems of objects by constructing and studying their models. Consequently, when modeling, the object under study is replaced by another auxiliary or artificial system. Patterns and trends identified in the modeling process are then extended to reality;

o material models(layouts, layouts, dummies, etc.);

o mental (ideal models)(sketches, photographs, maps, drawings, graphs);

— econometric method. Econometrics studies the quantitative aspects of economic phenomena and processes by means of mathematical and statistical analysis;

— geoinformation method(creation of GIS - a means of collecting, storing, mapping and analyzing various information about the territory based on geoinformation technologies);

— expeditionary(collection of primary data, work "in the field");

— sociological(interviewing, questioning);

— system analysis method(this is a comprehensive study of the structure of the economy, internal relationships and interaction of elements. System analysis is the most developed area of system research in economics. To conduct such an analysis, it is necessary to follow such systematization techniques as:

o classification (the grouping of the objects under study into sets that differ mainly in quantitative terms, and the qualitative difference reflects the dynamics of the development of objects and their hierarchical order);

o typology(grouping of the objects under study according to sets (types) that stably differ among themselves in terms of qualitative characteristics);

o concentration(a methodological technique in the study of complex geographical objects, in which either the number of additional elements in relation to the main object, associated with it and affecting the completeness of the study, either increases or decreases);

o taxonization(the process of dividing a territory into comparable or hierarchically subordinated taxa);

o zoning(the process of taxonization, in which the taxa to be identified must meet two criteria: the criterion of specificity and the criterion of unity)).

Private scientific methods:

- zoning (economic, socio-economic, environmental);

- the method of "keys" (primary attention is paid to specific local or regional objects, considered as typical or basic in relation to a given territorial system);

- methods of "play of scales" (when the phenomenon under study is analyzed at various spatial and hierarchical levels: global, state, regional, local);

- cyclic method (method of energy production cycles, method of resource cycles);

- remote aerospace methods (the Earth or other space bodies are studied at a considerable distance, for which air and space vehicles are used):

o aerial methods (visual methods of observation conducted from aircraft; aerial photography, the main view - aerial photography since the 1930s - the main method of topographic survey):

o space methods (visual observations: direct observations of the state of the atmosphere, the earth's surface, earth objects):

- comparative geographic (geography, unlike most natural sciences, is devoid of its main method - experiment. The method that replaces the experiment in geography is comparative geographic. The essence of the method is to study several territorial systems that exist in reality.

In the course of development of these systems there is a death (stagnation) of one and development, prosperity - others. Therefore, having studied a group of similar systems, one can identify those whose location provides favorable conditions for their successful development, and discard obviously losing options. That is, it is necessary to study historical experience and identify the reasons that provide positive or negative results in the compared options and choose the best one).

Thus, the main methods of geographical research are: the method of system analysis, cartographic, historical, comparative, statistical and others.

Literature:

1. Berlyant A.M. Cartography: textbook for high school. M.: Aspect Press, 2002. 336 p.

2. Druzhinin A.G., Zhitnikov V.G. Geography (economic, social and political): 100 exam answers: Express reference book for university students. M.: ICC "Mart"; Rostov n / a: Ed. Center "March", 2005. S. 15-17.

3. Isachenko A.G. Theory and methodology of geographical science: textbook. for stud. universities. M .: Publishing house "Academy", 2004. S. 55-158.

4. Kuzbozhev E.N., Kozieva I.A., Svetovtseva M.G. Economic geography and regional studies (history, methods, state and prospects for the placement of productive forces): textbook. settlement M.: Higher education, 2009. S. 44-50.

5. Martynov V.L., Faibusovich E.L. Socio-economic geography modern world: a textbook for students of higher educational institutions. M.: Ed. Center "Academy", 2010. S. 19-22.

Correlation analysis is a set of methods based on mathematical theory correlations, detection of a correlation between two random features or factors.

Regression analysis is a section of mathematical statistics that combines practical methods for studying the regression dependence between quantities according to statistical data.

Taxon - territorial (geotorial and aquatorial) units with specific qualification features. Equivalent and hierarchically subordinate cells of the territory. Types of taxa: district, area, zone.

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Methods of geographical research

Methods of geographical research - ways of obtaining geographic information. The main methods of geographical research are:

1)cartographic method. The map, according to the figurative expression of one of the founders of Russian economic geography - Nikolai Nikolaevich Baransky - is the second language of geography. The map is a unique source of information! It gives an idea of the relative position of objects, their size, the degree of distribution of a particular phenomenon, and much more.

5) geographic zoning method. The allocation of physical-geographical (natural) and economic regions is one of the methods for studying geographical science.

6). Comparative geographical. Everything is subject to comparison more or less, advantageous or disadvantageous, faster or slower.

Only comparison makes it possible to more fully describe and evaluate the similarities and differences of certain objects, as well as explain the reasons for these differences.

7) Method of field research and observations. Geography cannot be studied only sitting in classrooms and classrooms.

9) Method of geographical modeling. The creation of geographic models is an important method for the study of geography. The simplest geographic model is the globe.

How geographers study objects and processes. How scientific observations are made.

From the text of the textbook (p. 11) write out the main features (features) of scientific observations.

Explain these features. Use adjectives to complete this task.

1. Active - the observer seeks and records certain meteorological quantities and atmospheric phenomena.

2. Purposeful - the observer fixes only the meteorological quantities and phenomena necessary for determining the weather.

A certain plan of action is thought out by the observer in advance and is written in the book "Instruction for hydrometeorological stations and posts."

4. Systematic - carried out repeatedly according to a specific system.

Pathfinder Geographer School.

Write down in the table the results of observations of the long shadow of the gnomon.

Place of observation: city, settlement, village Buguruslan.

Gnomon height: 50 cm.

Observation time (hour, minute)	Gnomon shadow length (cm)	The position of the Sun above the horizon (rises, falls)
10:30	40	rises
12:00	50	at the zenith
14:30	60	descends
9:30	30	rises
8:30	20	rises
15:30	70	descends
16:30	80	descends
7:30	10	rises

Conclusion based on the results of observations (insert the missing words).

When the Sun rose above the horizon, the shadow of the gnomon increased; when the Sun went down to the horizon, the shadow of the gnomon decreased.

Compare the length of the gnomon with the largest value of the length of its shadow.

The length of the gnomon is greater than the longest shadow of the gnomon.

1. Method of Science

Method- a method of achieving the goal, a course of action or a way to achieve a comprehensive reflection of the subject of research, the disclosure of its essence, the knowledge of its laws. Methods mean a set of techniques and methods used in science to obtain new knowledge.

Methodology of Science- the whole system of methods, approaches and principles for obtaining new knowledge, their structure, the originality of the logic of research in geography. Depending on the objects of study and the scale of generalizations, there are levels of methodology:

Universal - covers all sciences (dialectical method - a method of knowledge)

General scientific - separately for natural sciences and humanities

Science Systems Methodology - Geographic Systems Sciences

Methodology of a specific science - methods of geography of the Russian economy

Methodology- a specific implementation of the method, a specially developed technique and procedure for its implementation in the process of organized interaction between the subject and the object of research. The methodology includes a set of methods for obtaining, clarifying or verifying scientific data.

2. Approaches to the study of geography. Approach types

Approaches- a set of techniques and methods for studying geography as a science. These are broader concepts than methods, which are based on principles that allow you to build and target private methods in a certain way.

Kinds:

Chronological - a territorial approach, one of the most important approaches, which aims methods at identifying territorial differences, as well as features of the spatial distribution and interaction of geographical objects. IN foreign literature the concept of geospace or place, district is more often used, in the domestic school - territory. The chronological principle is based on the interconnection of spaces, properties and relations of geographical systems.

Historical - defines the use of methods that detect changes in objects over time. It is associated with the formation of two scientific directions:

Paleogeographical (attached to studies of the prehistoric past of the geographic envelope)

Historical and geographical (correlates with the specifics of the geographical processes of a certain historical period in the development of human society)

Systemic (synergistic) - synergy- a doctrine based on the idea of the systemic nature of the world and scientific knowledge about him. System- a set and combination of interrelated objects (elements) with their inherent properties and relationships that form a certain integrity and are characterized by relative stability. This is the leading direction in the development of all sciences without exception, but in geography its application is most important, because. science itself and its objects of study are systemic. A systematic approach requires adherence to the following principles:

Integrity

Connection

Structure and organization

Control

Hierarchy levels

An example of a systematic approach in geography is a comprehensive study of countries, regions, industries, industries, natural-territorial complex (NTC), territorial production complex (TPC)

Analytical - division of the object of study into its constituent parts, i.e. subdivide the most complex systems into less complex subsystems

Typological - aims methods at highlighting the most significant features, similarities and differences in the studied geographical specifics, primarily uses the comparative geographical method (socio-economic typology of the countries of the world)

Ecological - associated with a massive environmental movement against the deterioration environment as a result of anthropogenic activity. In this regard, new scientific directions have recently appeared: geoecology (studies problems associated with habitat degradation as a result of human activities), ecological geography (studies the geographical environment in order to solve environmental problems)

Problematic - aimed at studying the most significant problems of our time: problems of peace and disarmament, environmental problems, demographic problems, problems of using the oceans, energy problems, raw materials, food.

3. Modeling method

Modeling is a process of reproducing a model of an object of a phenomenon or process in order to solve the problem with certain methodological techniques to control the results of the study and their implementation. Simulation plays a role necessary tool in geographical science. At the planetary level, there is the following classification of models: simulation, conceptual and intermediate. Simulation models are built to represent the dynamics of changes in phenomena such as climate. Conceptual or methodological models are intended to demonstrate the plausibility of processes and are formed on the basis of a shared understanding of feedbacks. Models of intermediate complexity are needed to simulate interactions among processes in a natural system.

In geography, the following main models are distinguished: verbal, cartographic, structural, graphic, mathematical, natural. Models can also be combined: mathematical-cartographic, mathematical-graphic, etc.

1. verbalmodels represent a description of a geosystem using language tools.

2. Cartographicmodels are geographic maps along with a situation of a certain content and purpose applied to them.

3. Structuralmodels (schemes) are very often used in the classification of objects, systems, processes according to a certain attribute or to transfer the sequence of processes in the study of the genesis, evolution of an object or system

4. Graphicthe model is a graph with the results of research plotted on it in the form of points, lines, and using other display methods.

5. Mathematicalmodels are an abstract description of objects, phenomena or processes using signs (symbols).

6. naturala model is an imitation of a natural object or phenomenon in the form of a model.

Thus, the model serves as a means of knowing the original and reflects its most important properties.

4. Principles and means of geography as a science

According to the principle of origin (historical principle):

Traditionalmethods of geographical research (observation, description): § cartographic method (study of maps, maps) § statistical method (use and processing of statistical data) § historical-geographical method § comparative geographical method (reveals the similarity and difference of geographical objects for their classification and forecasting) Moderngeographical research methods: § aerospace method § modeling method (creation of an analogue of the object under study and its subsequent study) § geographic forecast (prediction of the future state of geosystems) § geoinformation method (creation of databanks based on information obtained from various sources)

According to the principle of use:

Are commongeographic methods: § descriptive § cartographic § comparative geographical § quantitative § aerospace § geoinformational § modeling Privategeographic methods: § physical geography (geochemical, geographical, paleogeographic) § socio-economic geography (specialization, study of production efficiency - Agriculture or industry, many social methods- survey, social poll, interview)

By the principle of being:

empiricalmethods (empiricism - the visible side) - allowing to gain knowledge with the help of the senses. This is knowledge gained on the basis of experience, otherwise this knowledge is called experienced and practical: § observation - obtaining primary information about the object under study and measuring quantitative indicators, it is considered the most ancient method, correctly built observation requires a plan and bringing the results to formally obtained data. § expeditionary (field) - collection is associated with it scientific facts received in field conditions when passing certain routes, compiling profiles and describing key areas § stationary method - the study of changes in phenomena over a long period of time at the same place § aerospace method - use of aerial photographs or satellite imagery § balance methods - calculation methods for analysis, forecasting and planning the development of geosystems § cameral methods - processing the results of observation. experimentalmethods (interdisciplinary) - differ from observation in that they involve a special organization of research situations and the active intervention of the researcher in it. § experiment - reproduction by an object in specially created conditions, carried out to test hypotheses, there are two types: Ø natural experiment - associated with the organization of directed influences on natural systems and the study of the reactions of this system Ø model - carried out on analogues of certain natural systems (models) § mathematical methods - used in all natural and social sciences to obtain quantitative indicators. Most often in geography, the theory of probability and methods of mathematical statistics are used. § geochemical methods § geophysical methods. Theoreticalmethods - involve the mental interaction of the researcher with the model of the object of study under study § induction - the way to build a study by summarizing the available data, the method of ascent from the particular to the general § deduction - a method of ascent from the general to the particular, from the abstract to the concrete § modeling § analogies - identifying similarities in objects and phenomena for subsequent comparison. Methods interpretations and generalizations- characterized by the fact that the subject of the study operates with sign-symbolic representations of the object in the form of terms, concepts, judgments, theories, laws § methods of empirical generalization Ø comparative geographical, perform several functions: determine the area of similar phenomena and objects, delimit similar objects and phenomena, is important and widely applicable in regional studies when analyzing isolines Ø systematization - the ordering of objects and phenomena in any aspect (formal, external, internal), involves the division of the entire set of objects related by a known similarity by ranking. In geography, the most well-known systems are classification, taxonomy (classification by hierarchy), typology (classification based on a qualitative feature), zoning Ø comparative historical method Ø genetic method - involves the study of the origin of an object and phenomenon, based on the sources of development of geographical objects (genesis, i.e. the development of reliefs, soils, landscapes, socio-economic objects) Ø paleogeographic method Ø diocranian method - uses historical factors (study of historical texts, maps) to determine the general trends in the development of geographical objects over a certain historical time § methods of theoretical generalization are aimed at forming the conceptual apparatus of the theory Ø abstraction: abstraction of distraction - individual aspects of complex objects are known with their subsequent synthesis; abstraction of generalization - forms concepts, laws and theories by eliminating the accidental and non-essential Ø formalization is the essence of generalization, as a result of which a new model of the formal level appears, which reflects only the form of an object or phenomenon, knowledge appears in the idea of symbols: graphs, diagrams, profiles, flowcharts, maps.

5. Description method

The most ancient method, which is associated with the very emergence of geography.

History of development

1 period Ancient world, Middle Ages, early modern times in geography, empirical description prevails, i.e. what I see and write about. A striking example such a description - descriptions of Herodotus, Eratosthenes, Strabo, Marco Polo. Since the time of the Great Geographical Discoveries, descriptions have changed little, only their factuality has intensified, all travelers and discoverers of new lands are considered outstanding geographers. scientists and naturalists began to participate in round-the-world and other major travels. An example is the works of Tatishchev (Urals), Krasheninnikov 3 period 19 - first half of the 20th century Scientific descriptions are becoming widespread, there is a dawn of the use of geographical description, this is due to the formation of scientific geographical schools in many countries (German - Humboldt, French - Elise Reclus, Russian domestic - Semenov - Tien-Shansky, Przhevalsky, Miklukho-Maclay) 4 period second half of the 20th century - our time At this time, there is a gradual loss of mastery of geographical description, this is due to the fact that science requires full-fledged complex data, and the geography of that time is limited to analytical information of individual elements of nature. Baransky noted two reasons for the sharp decline in good geographical descriptions: the transition from a descriptive style to an analytical one and an underestimation of the literary form of geographical descriptions.

Currently, there is a revival of the method of geographical description, which is explained by a new increased interest in regional studies, the development of internal and external tourism. Now all descriptions are carried out in a complex way, this is most evident as a result of the creation of landscape maps. The creation of landscape maps presupposes the characterization of physical-geographical zoning. It is most interesting and revealing to carry out a comprehensive physical and geographical description of the territory at selected observation points; for this, the following plan is used:

The georeferencing of the observation point is set (near landmarks, directions and distances)

Geological and geomorphological observation (geological observations are of an auxiliary nature, layers are distinguished, the nature of occurrence, inclusions, geomorphology - a description of mechanoforms, genetic type of relief: for hilly relief - size, shape, length, heights, exposure, etc., for plains - relative excess, for river valleys - shape, width, depth, etc., in conclusion, the nature of anthropogenic change in relief and transformation is given)

Soil observations (to describe soils, it is necessary to lay soil sections: a pit or a pit, after which a sketch is made and genetic horizons are determined, mechanical composition, humidity, color, etc., after which the name of the soil is given)

Geobotanical observations (a geobotanical site is being laid - for a forest 20x20 m, for a meadow - 10x10 m, for a swamp 1x1 m, the species composition, layering, mosaicity (horizontal heterogeneity) is described, each plant genus and species, a herbarium is collected, the observation is completed with the name of a plant association according to dominant two or three tiers).

Geoecological observation (studies the anthropogenic impact, their nature and consequences, as well as the boundaries of anthropogenic objects, agricultural land, roads, power lines, garbage dumps, farms, cowsheds, etc., bonfires, and modern adverse processes are determined: soil erosion, waterlogging or flooding, trampling of the vegetation cover, the quality is assessed surface water by its transparency, color, smell. For soils by the presence of oil stains, smell, other vegetation: by drying out and damage to leaves, needles, the appearance of weed species, the oppressed state of agricultural. crops, in conclusion, a conclusion is made about the geoecological state.

The physiographic description may include other observations: microclimatic, hydrological, hydrochemical

In conclusion, a field map is compiled, which includes a description of several observation points with clarification of the boundaries. It can be compiled in the field, and therefore the legend is finalized and compiled on the spot.

6. Cartographic method

The specific method of geography geography is a territorial science. Baransky spoke about the significance of this method:

The map is the alpha and omega of geography, its beginning and end.

Map - an incentive to fill empty spaces

Map - a means to identify geographical patterns

The map is a necessary intermediary between the extremely limited scope of its direct observation by man and the enormous size of objects of geographical research on the surface of the globe.

Map - the second language of geography

Map - one of the criteria for geographical

The essence of the cartographic method lies in the fact that maps are used to depict phenomena on them. The modern purpose of the cartographic method of physical geography is landscape maps, socio-economic geography - maps that reflect various quantitative characteristics of objects for assessing location factors.

In country studies, a map helps to create an image of a country's territory, i.e. her portrait. This method involves the steps:

Receiving the information

Processing and building maps

Examining the map, analyzing it and extracting information

Using the information received for conclusions, recommendations and forecasts

For a map, it is important not only to draw up correctly, but also to make it work, i.e. gave information. Types of analytical application of the method:

1. Visual analysis of maps

2. Cartometric method measurement of geometric objects: area, distance

3. Geographical analysis (building profiles, graphs, charts)

4. Statistical analysis of maps

5. Analysis when converting maps (generalization, projections)

6. Mathematical analysis of maps

7. Comparative geographical method

Traditional historically used since ancient times, currently one of the most common. History of development:

1. The foundations of the method were laid down in ancient times (Herodotus, Aristotle). In the Middle Ages, due to the social stagnation of science, methods were forgotten.

2. 17th-18th centuries Humboldt laid the foundations for the modern comparative geographic method, applying it to study the relationship between climate and vegetation. His expression accurately characterizes this method: “Compare distinctive features individual countries and to present in brief the result of these comparisons is a grateful, albeit difficult, task of general geography"

3. In modern times, comparison is one of the universal methods of geography and is a specific logical device.

In the comparative geographical method, two sequential operations are distinguished:

identification operation (finding common features)

discrimination operation (finding different features)

8. Mathematical methods

1.The attitude towards mathematical methods in geography is ambiguous among various researchers. The first experiments in the application of mathematics in geography date back to the time of Eratosthenes, when mathematical geography existed and was used as a term.

1. The Middle Ages and even the times of the Great Geographical Discoveries did not give rise to theories leading to the path of mathematization of geography.

2. Late 50s - 60s. last century - the heyday of mathematization. Many geographers work under the slogan: "Mathematical methods solve everything."

Mathematical methods make it possible to create special descriptions of geographical phenomena and processes - their mathematical models. The essence of mathematical modeling lies in the abstract and simplified representation of reality by logical and mathematical formulas that convey in a concentrated form information about the structure, relationships and dynamics of the studied geographical phenomena.

In terms of geography, three types of models can be distinguished:

1. mathematical models that are built without taking into account the spatial coordination of phenomena, and the results, the implementation of which is not subject to mapping;

2. models in which the results are mapped, but the spatial aspect is not taken into account at the stage of implementation of mathematical algorithms;

3. models in which, without taking into account the spatial position of phenomena, it is impossible to implement mathematical calculations.

Simulation modeling has become widespread in geography. Optimization models are also used. The transport problem of linear programming is often used.

9. Aerospace methods

Space methods are methods for studying the structure and development of the geographic environment based on space imagery materials obtained by registering reflected solar and artificial light and the Earth's own radiation from spacecraft. The basis of geographical research using space methods is the theory of the optical properties of the natural environment, due to the interaction of solar radiation with the geographic envelope. The interpretation of images is based on the use of correlations between the parameters of geographical objects and their optical characteristics.

Space images of the earth's surface are terrain models that reflect the real geographical situation at the time of shooting. Their most valuable properties are:

1) complex image of the landscape structure, including the main natural and anthropogenic components;

2) wide spectral range of shooting, as mentioned above;

3) high visibility of images;

4) a wide variety of shooting scales;

5) different periodicity of shooting - from tens of minutes to tens of years; multiple coverage by shooting the globe.

Space methods successfully complement traditional ground and air methods. Remote surveying is most widely used in physical geography. In soil science, using satellite images, the spatial differentiation of the soil cover is successfully established and its mapping is carried out, many soil parameters are determined, such as humus content, mechanical composition, salinity, humidity, and temperature. In landscape science, space methods are widely used in the study and mapping of the spatial structure, seasonal rhythms and long-term dynamics of landscapes, and in paleogeographic studies.

9. Geoinformation method

Started developing over 30 years ago. Historically geoinformation systems in their modern development on the basis of information retrieval systems and later cartographic databanks. First, the automatic creation of maps takes place, with the further inclusion of blocks of mathematical and cartographic modeling and automatic reproduction of maps. GIS classification:

1. by territorial coverage (nationwide, regional, etc.)

2. by purpose (multi-purpose, specialized, information guides, for planning, etc.)

3. by thematic orientation (general geographic, sectoral, etc.)

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