semantic inconsistency. semantic agreement. Adaptation to work on a rotational basis in the extreme conditions of the Far North: textbook. allowance
Subject.
Properties subject:
1) It is the main structurally independent member of the sentence, subordinating the predicate in a two-part sentence.
2) Reflects the logical structure of thought (subject S).
3) It occupies the main syntactic position before the predicate.
5) Denotes the subject of speech
6) It is usually expressed by the name of a noun. or a personal pronoun in the form I.p.
8) It can be morphologized PE (typical formation) and non-morphologized PE.
9) Contains "given".
General question to the subject Q: What is the proposal about? This question allows:
1) identify the subject of speech;
2) set "given".
Questions Who? What? are incorrect in syntax (they are morphological)
The OGZ of the subject is the meaning of the subject of speech, can be specified:
Carrier of action (student goes to study)
Carrier of the state (passenger dozing)
As a quality characteristic
One of the most ... ways to determine the subject is the way it is expressed.
The standard expression of the subject is a noun in I.p. (personal pronoun in I.p.)
In Russian, it is conditionally possible to distinguish ways of expressing the subject:
1) Noun in I.p.
Petya carefully reads the textbook
2) Personal pronoun in I.p.
I often take a break during my free time.
3) Pronoun of any other category
Someone knocked the door.(indefinite pronoun)
Particular attention should be paid to relative pronouns that play the role of the subject in the subordinate part of the SSP.
Studying is a difficult activity that not everyone can do.
4) The word of any substantiated part of speech.
The mourners stood on the platform.
5) Words of any part of speech used in the meaning of nouns.
In the distance, "Hurrah!"
6) Infinitive of the verb
The infinitive subject is the most semantic subject, because it combines the meaning of both the object and the action.
It is a great pleasure to live on earth.
7) Non-free phrase
There was something infantile in his behavior.
The crescent of the month has become brighter and lighter (Lex. Esv. SS)
8) The subject can be expressed and not I.p. , in this case the subject includes a phrase with the meaning of approximate, including the words before, near, over, more, less and a combination of a numeral and a noun dependent on them in R.p.
Over two hundred applicantswere enrolled in universities.
9) A whole sentence or several sentences.
"I will, I will fly!" - rang and sang in the head of Alexei.
Predicate
The predicate as a structural-semantic component of the sentence has a set of the following differentiating features:
1) The main member of the sentence, which structurally depends on the subject in a two-part sentence.
2) Reflects the logical structure of thought (predicate P)
3) Usually takes the main position after the subject.
4) Included in the block diagram of the proposal.
5) Denotes a predicative feature of the subject of speech in the modal-temporal plan (as an action, as a state, as a characteristic).
6) Usually expressed by the conjugated form of the verb (and names)
7) Forms the grammatical basis of the sentence.
8) Usually means new.
In a sentence, the predicate is no less important than the subject. The subject only names the subject of speech, and the predicate characterizes it from the point of view of a predicative feature.
The predicative sign is attributed to the subject of speech in a certain modal-temporal plan.
Question to the predicate: what is said about the subject of speech?
(- as an action
Like a state
How qualitative characteristic)
Questions what is he doing, what will he do- incorrect.
The expression in the predicate of the predicative feature of the subject of speech implies the presence of two meanings in the predicate: grammatical meaning (GZ) and real meaning (VZ).
OT is the specific name of the attribute attributed to the subject of speech. It relies on the LZ-th word acting as a predicate.
As part of the predicate, there should always be a word with a full-fledged LZ.
GP is the relation of a predicative feature to the subject of speech and its modal-temporal assessment.
The expression of the CG is a verb in conjugated form or its significant absence (zero form).
The sun began (GS, indicates the time and reality of the action) to lean (OS) towards the west.
The moonlight streams (GZ and VZ) on the earth.
According to the meaning and method of expression, the predicate is verbal, nominal and mixed.
Depending on the structure and way of expressing the GZ: simple, compound and complex.
These two classifications complement each other, overlap each other and form a system of predicate types.
__________________________________________ TYPES OF PREDICTS ______________________________________
Simple __Composite ____ Complex ____________________
Verbal (PGS) Verbal (CHS) Nominal (SIS) Verbal Nominal Mixed
(SSGT) (SSIT) (SSST)
PGS - expressed by a verb and has a synthetic character, since OT and GP are expressed in it in parallel in one verb word form.
Ways of expressing ASG:
1) Verbs in any mood.
Peter speaks at the meeting
2) Verb in any tense
3) Verb in infinitive form.
4) The so-called verbal interjections
Grab, shast (for example)
5) Phraseologically not free SS
Leontiev always experienced inexplicable sadness.
PGS can be uncomplicated (there are no complicating structural elements in the composition) and complicated (if there are such complicating elements in the composition)
Complicating elements can be expressed:
Syntactic imperative form
(Let be….)
A combination of two verbs, one of which is lexically empty (took, went ...)
And Vasya took one eye and closed it.
Repetitive verb forms
A combination of verbs with intensifying particles (it used to be, as, as if)
The day seemed to be dozing.
The snow kept getting stronger.
All forms of complicated PGS are characterized by a high degree of expressive richness, are often emotionally colored and are used only in colloquial speech.
Compound, complex predicates are characterized by the fact that in them the OT and GP are expressed dissectedly:
In compound predicates - in two word forms.
In complex predicates - in three or more word forms.
The CGS (compound verbal predicate) is characterized by the fact that in it the OT and GP are expressed lazily in two verb forms. It consists of two parts - main and auxiliary. Main part contains an OT and is expressed by the infinitive of the verb. Auxiliary part contains the GZ and is expressed by the conjugated form of the verb.
In the role of connection in the auxiliary part, verbs of three lexical and grammatical categories can act:
1) Phase verbs, expressing an assessment of the action, called the infinitive, from the point of view of the phase of its course. (initial, middle, final).
Peter began to answer.
2) Modal verbs , expressing the modal assessment of the action, called the infinitive of the main verb.
Wanted, wished, aspired, etc.
Peter couldn't prepare properly to the lesson.
3) Verbs emotional evaluation , expressing the emotional characteristics of the action, called the infinitive of the main verb.
Petya likes to answer at literature lessons.
Phraseologically non-free verb-type SSs with modal meanings can also act as a link.
He had no right to take risks, and therefore he walked carefully.
NB
Not every combination of a conjugated verb with a dependent infinitive is a compound verbal predicate.
This may be a combination of PGS with minor members:
Petya finished preparing for the lessons (SGS).
Petya helped Sveta get ready for the lessons (helped with what? In preparation for the lessons)).
Petya went to Moscow to study (target infinitive)
SIS (compound nominal predicate)
SIS is characterized by the fact that in it the OT and PG are expressed dissectedly in two word forms: one verbal and one nominal.
Main part- contains an OT and is expressed by a name (any). Also called an associated nominal member (PNA).
The auxiliary part expresses the CG and is represented by a conjugated linking verb. stand out three types of links:
1) abstract. Verb be, the copula expresses only the GP of time and modality, is completely devoid of (ch. to be) OT.
In the present tense, the link is zero.
personal happiness impossible without the happiness of others. (N. Chernyshevsky)
2) Semi-distracted(semi-significant) copula also expresses the meaning of modality and time and contains a residual lexical meaning.
All becomes lighter, more fun from the first snow (Pushkin).
3) Significant connectives- these are verbs that have completely retained their LP in the language, which can be used as PGS, but in this sentence they lose or have a very weakened PL and act as a link of SIS.
The night was cold.
PMP can be expressed different ways:
1) IP in different cases:
The chief was delighted.
2) An adjective in any form (full, short, comparative, etc.):
The former boss was fair.
3) Participles (in any form and any type)
The forest stood yellowed.
4) Pronouns of any ranks
5) Adverbs
Everything was the same for them.
6) With numerals, Petya came second.
7) Non-free SS
Marina was a smart girl.
COMPOUND PREDICT
SL SCs arise on the basis of components due to additional verbal elements. They are characterized by the fact that in them OT and GP are also expressed dissected, but in 3 or more word forms.
CSGT (complex predicate of the verbal type) is such a predicate, in the torus OT and GP are expressed dissectedly in 3 or more verbal word forms. They consist of two parts: main and auxiliary.
The main part contains the OT and is expressed by the infinitive of the full-valued verb, and the auxiliary part contains the PG-s and is expressed by the conjugated linking verb and the infinitive linking with a modal or phase meaning.
Flash Part
Peter wanted to continue work.
A verb phraseological unit can also be used as a linking verb.
SSIT - is characterized by the fact that in it the OT and GP are expressed dissectedly in three or more word forms, one nominal ( the nominal word form is always at the end of the predicate).
It consists of two parts: main and auxiliary.
The main part expresses the OT and can be represented by any nominal PR and is called PCH.
The auxiliary part contains the GZ-I and is expressed by verbal connectives (?), one of which must always be expressed in a conjugated form.
SSST - is a symbiosis, a combination of nominal and verbal predicates. It is characterized by the fact that in it the OT and GP are also expressed dissected, also in 3 or more word forms (nominal and verbal). Wherein named component is located not at the end predicate.
CCST Models:
1) Short adj + 0 (zero off link) + Inf
real music able (0) to express wonderful feelings.
2) Word KS +0+ Inf
Sad, difficult, hard, impossible, leisure, etc.
You can't evade the answer.
3) Exist. with score value + 0 + Inf
Master, amateur, hunter, not a fool, etc.
Petya was not a fan of food
4) Neg. pronoun word + 0 + inf
No one, no one, nothing, no one, etc.
Someone began to work.
5) Brief participle. + 0 + Inf
In the midst of an attack it was decided part of the troops hand over adjacent front.
6) Not St. Phrase (ch. with adjective) + Inf
He found it more convenient to avoid talking.
The subject and predicate form the predicative basis of a two-part sentence, while predicative relations are established between them, i.e. the relationship between the predicative feature and the subject of speech. These predicative relations are expressed with the help of a predicative connection.
An active role in the expression of this connection belongs to the predicate. The means of expressing a predicative connection are, as a rule, the forms of the verb of the predicate, particles, word order, intonation. In this case, the main means of communication is the form of the verb, which is entirely determined by the subject. The rest of the funds are additional.
By the presence or absence of the main means of communication, two-part sentences are divided into two large groups:
A) Sentences with a formally expressed predicative connection.
B) Sentences with a formally unexpressed predicative connection.
In a sentence with FVPS, the predicate always contains a conjugated verb or a name. This type of predictive relationship is called predictive agreement. It is of three types:
1) Grammar agreement
2) Conditional approval
3) Semantic agreement
Grammar agreement predicate with subject always implies that they have common grammatical categories.
The means of expressing grammatical agreement is the ending of the predicate.
Brevity is the sister of talent (similarity in the form of gender, number, case)
Conditional agreement- observed:
1) with the subject, expressed invariable word, the predicate conditionally agrees in the form:
In present and bud. time - in the 3rd person singular. hours;
In the past tense and subjunctive mood - in f. unit cf. kind).
2) With a subject, a pronounced quantitative numeral, a combination of a numeral with a noun in R.p., the predicate conditionally agrees in the same forms.
There were three buses at the bus stop.
3) The predicate conditionally agrees with the infinitive subject in the same forms.
Seeing flaws meant the ability to self-criticism.
With the subject, pronounced pronoun who, the predicate conditionally agrees in the form of the 3rd person unit. numbers, and in the past tense and subjunctive mood - in the form of m.r. (unit)
Someone knocked the door.
With the subject, expressed pronoun that (something, etc.), the predicate conditionally agrees in the form of 3 person singular, and in the past tense - in the form of s.r.
Something moved in the hollow
Semantic agreement
In semantic agreement, the form of the predicate is determined not by the form of the subject, but by its semantics (meaning)
Allocate cases:
1) If the subject is expressed by a combination of a numeral with a noun, the predicate is used in the plural. number, if it is necessary to emphasize the separateness, independence of objects.
Four students stood at the office.
2) If the subject is expressed by SS with the meaning compatibility, the verb is used in the plural.
Brother and sister arrived in the city.
3) If the subject is expressed by an indeclinable noun denoting an animal, then the predicate in present. and bud. time is put in the form of 3 l. units numbers, and in the past tense - in m.r. (or f.r.)
A beautiful cockatoo sat on a branch.
If the subject is expressed by an indeclinable proper noun denoting an object, the form of the predicate is determined by the gender of the word being defined
If the subject is expressed by an indeclinable common noun denoting an object, the predicate is in the form of s.r.
If the subject is expressed by an indeclinable noun (a complexly abbreviated word), then the form of the predicate is determined by the gender of the supporting word.
If the subject is expressed by the noun. a common gender or a word close to it in meaning, the form of the predicate is determined by the gender of the person.
Connected texts are built taking into account the law of semantic agreement, which V.G. Gak defines it as follows: two words form the correct combination, provided that, in addition to specific features, they contain some common feature or do not have incompatible features, for example, a verb or adjective denoting an action or property of a living being is combined with animate nouns ( the man spoke; a sick man). Reconciliation of contradictory signs is possible provided that in one of the members of the phrase the contradictory semes of the other member are canceled due to the rethinking of one of the components. Wed The whole house was talking about it; sick conscience etc. Thus, the incompatibility of semes leads to the extinction of the "extra" seme of one of the words in the syntagma. So, for example, in combination Time is running in the meaning of the verb go the component ‘move by stepping’ is lost.
For the Russian language, semantic agreement is more characteristic than for other languages. So, for example, an action in Russian is often denoted depending on the nature of the subject who performs it: 1) Bird flew out from the nest; 2)Snake crawled out from a hole. As we can see, the process of movement in Russian takes a physically different form depending on who is moving ( fish floats, snake crawling, bird flies and so on.). And in French, the designation of the action depends on the nature of the situation itself, and not on the specific characteristics of the subject, therefore, when translating sentences 1) and 2), the same verb will be used, which literally means “leave”. Compare: 1) L'oiseau est sorti de son nid; 2) Le serpent est sorti de son trou. Here are some more examples that show the special significance for the construction of statements in Russian of duplication of semantic components: closet costs by the window, book lies on the table, picture hanging on the wall, where the specific form of position in space depends on the nature of the object itself; cf. Also: build a house, dig a hole, make a nest; write poetry, draw cartoons, make a film etc., where the creation process is formalized differently when different types created objects; destroy a house, kill an animal, cut down a forest, erase writing, tear paper and so on. , where the destruction process differs depending on the nature of the object.
Thus, the coherence of the generated statement is ensured by the repetition of semantic components. The law of maximum repetition of meanings is the main law that regulates both the construction of the text and its understanding: native speakers intuitively choose such a comprehension of the statement, in which the repetition of semantic components will be the greatest.
Semantic agreement (“meaning agreement”) is the choice of the form of the predicate according to the content of the subject. For example, the form of the gender of the predicate with the subject I, you is determined taking into account the gender of the person indicated by the pronoun: You came; I came; At times I was alone (Bulg.).
In some sentences, agreement has options: first of all, it is the use of the singular or plural of the predicate with the subject, which is expressed by a phrase with a quantitative meaning; for example: Eleven people served at the station (M. G.); Two girls went home with mushrooms (L.T.). In the first example - conditional agreement of the predicate in number, in gender with the numeral eleven (having no grammatical number and gender); in the second, semantic agreement in number with the quantitative phrase two girls (meaning `not one`).
Can be combined in one offer different types agreement; for example: And I forgot your gentle voice ... (P.) - grammatical agreement in number, semantic agreement in gender.
Various types of agreement appear with the subject - “polite you”. These agreement rules are an important part of speech etiquette.
The verb, including the auxiliary, grammatically agrees in number, that is, it has the plural form; for example: Beloved! You did not love me (Es.); used in the plural and short adjective, participle; for example: You were right before me (P.). The full adjective, participle, pronoun, numeral one, ordinal number have semantic agreement with "you" in number (singular!), in gender (male or female); for example: You are so smart; You were the first; Are you alone?; You alone can help me; You seemed tired; I know: you are not the one (Ec.).
The connection of the main members is not formally expressed if the predicate is represented by an infinitive or a truncated form of the verb; for example: Tatyana ah, and he - roar (P.) - cf .: gasped; To live life is not to cross the field (Last). In such two-part sentences, the subject and predicate are connected with the help of intonation and word order.
Modern Russian literary language/ Ed. P. A. Lekanta - M., 2009
In the extended context, the role of the species in the formation of the semantics of the sentence decreases, since various linguistic elements participate in the expression of the course of the action. These are, in addition to the verb form and modes of action, lexical indicators: adverbs, pronominal words and prepositional-case combinations with adverbial temporal meanings (already, still, often, every day, in an hour, etc.).
P.); syntactic constructions (for example, complex sentences with temporary conjunctions such as while, as long as), etc.
The Russian language implements the mechanism of semantic coordination of all aspectual elements and their duplication. According to V. G. Gak (1924-2004), semantic agreement is a repetition of one or another meaning in a phrase or sentence, semantic disagreement is the absence of such repetition, and semantic disagreement is “a combination of opposite (or unnecessary) components” [Gak 1972: 381]. For example, in the following sentence I will do this work in two days, before Monday the final limit of the action is indicated in the verb form CB itself and the circumstances of the time.
An unmarked member of the specific opposition - NSV - can imply various aspectual contextual meanings, but with an unambiguous expression of the singularity and completeness of the action by lexical indicators, the use of SS is mandatory in Russian (a similar situation is observed in other Slavic languages). This is a source of errors for speakers of non-Slavic languages who study Russian, who often do not take into account the semantic matching of contextual elements with the form of SV, which is mandatory in such cases. Compare, for example, the misuse of species in the following sentences: * He has already eaten everything I left him; *Do it all the way tonight / before 7pm; *Have you already written your article? Today we *done everything by 7 o'clock. Yesterday I *reworked an article in two hours; Tomorrow in two hours I *will be redoing the article. NE can replace NE when denoting a completed action only if the aspect characteristic of the action (completion, effectiveness) follows from the situation or context, but is not updated by special lexical elements (cf .: I read / read this article, so we can discuss Where did you buy / did you buy this dictionary?)
Thus, NSV retains its own specific meaning even outside the context of specific-process or specific-long-term use, which prevents the replacement of NSV verbs with SNV verbs in the presence of contextual indicators of the completion and effectiveness of a single action. However, when denoting repetitive actions, the compatibility of NSV with such circumstances in Russian is usual, which confirms the neutralization of the aspectual opposition in this type of context, cf.: She usually reprinted such a text in an hour. As a rule, we completed everything completely by 7 o'clock. The NSV verbs, the only ones possible in such contexts, act as aspectually neutral forms and therefore freely combine with circumstances such as in an hour, by 7 o'clock, completely, emphasizing the completion of the action.
In the Czech and Slovak languages, such compatibility is impossible: the more pronounced process meaning of the NSV verbs prevents their use in such contexts: Czech.
Takovy text ^přepisovala obyčejně za hodinu; Slovak ^Prepisovala taky text obyčajne za hodinu. The following suggestions are more realistic: Czech. Takovy text přepisovala obvykle hodinu - She usually copied such a text for an hour or Takovy text přepsala (CB) obvykle za hodinu and Slovak. Prepisala (CB) taky text obyčajne za hodinu – lit. * She usually retyped the text in an hour. The Polish language here shows similarities with Russian: Taki tekst ona zazwyczaj przepisywala (NSV) w godzine.
The opposition of SV and NSV is associated in the text with various semantic oppositions, between which there are hierarchical relations. The implementation of the main opposition of the verbs CB and NSV in relation to the limit of action determines the distinction between sequential and simultaneous actions and the distinction between narrative and description based on this (see § 29). Other semantic oppositions of the verbs SV and NSV are realized, as a rule, when the main aspectual opposition is neutralized - the action with the actualization of its limit (the specific actual meaning of the SS) and the action in the process of flow (the process value of the NSV). In a number of verbs SV and NSV, the opposition to the limit of action is neutralized in the very lexical meaning of the verbs, which, regardless of the form, equally express effective actions. Such, for example, are instant action verbs of the type find - find. For such verbs, the main opposition of NE and NSV is built only in relation to the sign of multiplicity.
In the case of optional neutralization of aspectual opposition, when both aspectual forms can be used when denoting the same denotative situation, the verbs SV and NSV may differ in the interpretation of this situation in a modal-pragmatic sense. Pragmatic meanings are expressed by contrasting NE and NE, in particular, in negation, when it is clear from the situation that the action has not yet taken place, therefore the nature of its course is unimportant, as well as in imperative sentences with an imperative. Thus, when expressing an inducement not to perform an action with the help of a type, a request-prohibition (NSV) and a warning (SV) are distinguished. Wed: Don't spill my coffee, please! (I'll finish it) / Don't pour out my coffee! (I'll still finish it). Patterns of the use of species in the imperative may be due to the peculiarities of the communicative situation. The neutral impulse to action expresses ST (Bring this magazine to the lesson tomorrow, and now take out the textbook), the verbs of NSV express a more categorical and impatient impulse (Get it soon!). But in the etiquette structures of invitations, greetings, farewells, the function of neutral motivation was assigned to the NE, while the NE expresses a direct urge to act, motivated by a specific situation. Wed: Come on! Get undressed! Sit down! - Please go to the next room and wait for the doctor there! Please sit on another chair, this one is broken. The opposition of species in the infinitive is rich in pragmatic meanings, especially in negative sentences, for example: Olya don’t get up early tomorrow (= don’t get up): holidays; Olya won’t get up early tomorrow (= won’t be able to get up): she went to bed very late.
The aspect can act as an indicator of a kind of certainty / indefiniteness of an action, in particular in interrogative and negative sentences (in terms of the past tense): SV expresses a known, expected action, while the verb NSV indicates only the fact of an action or its absence [Rassudova 1968: 20 -21]. Wed: Alexey didn’t return the book to me, although I really asked him about it / Alexey didn’t return any book to me, I don’t know anything. Especially rich in additional pragmatic and thematic functions is the use of NSV verbs with a general factual meaning in terms of the past tense (for the complication of the rules for choosing the past tense forms SS and NSV in the dialogic type of speech, see § 36).
LANGUAGE LEVELS.
Units and relationships.
LEXICO-SEMANTIC LEVEL
The main E of this level is the word as a carrier of lexical meaning; besides it, this level also includes non-single-word secondary units of the language that are equated to the word - by the nature of their meanings and functions: phraseological units, lexicalized nominative and predicative combinations of words, as well as abbreviations. The lexico-semantic level accumulates and consolidates the results of the cognitive activity of the speaking group, the concepts developed in the practice of communication. Because of this, the lexico-semantic level differs significantly from all other levels. Linguists point to a number of defining characteristics.
The vocabulary is mobile and permeable, it is an open level of the language. New facts of reality that fall into the sphere of human activity, new concepts that are formed on this basis, are directly reflected in the vocabulary of the language.
The vocabulary of the language is internally systematically organized on different semantic grounds. The logical subordination and subordination of the vocabulary is noted. On this basis, hypernyms (general, general concepts) and hyponyms (specific, logically subordinate concepts) of various ranks are distinguished. Hyperonymy and hyponymy permeate the vocabulary of the language from basic, categorical concepts to specific, single ones.
The systematic organization of vocabulary on semantic grounds is also expressed in such phenomena of the language as polysemy, synonymy, antonymy, lexical assimilation, semantic compatibility of words, etc. The above-mentioned thematic groups of words and semantic (conceptual) fields can serve as an example of a systemic organization of vocabulary.
Types of word oppositions by sememes and lexemes
The presence of two sides of a word - a lexeme and a sememe (especially several sememes) allows one word to enter into big number various oppositions. Imagine for simplicity that the lexeme has one sememe. Then she, as Oleg Mikhailovich Sokolov determined, can enter into the following nine relationships:
1. Two words have identical lexeme and sememe. This is the same word (snow - snow).
2. Two words have identical lexemes, but there are slight differences in sememes, although the commonality of part of the sememe is preserved. This is a phenomenon of polysemy of the word (snow - precipitation and snow - gray hair).
3. Two words have identical lexemes, but do not have common sememes. There is a phenomenon of homonymy: key- device for opening the lock, key- a source of water spouting from the ground.
4. Leximes have a common part (intersect), sememes are identical. Such words are morphological or phonetic variants of the word (fox and fox, zero and zero).
5. Tokens have a common part and semes have a common part. Such a case is interpreted as a single-root synonymy (to believe - to believe, to enter - to drop in).
6. Leximes have a common part, semes are different. Such words are called paronyms: campaign, graduate student And company, Ph.D.
7. Two different lexemes have identical semes (linguistics - linguistics, inflection - ending). Such words are called homosemes.
8. Two different lexemes carry sememes that have a common part: divide - dismember. The phenomenon is called heterogeneous synonymy.
9. Two different lexemes express two different semes. These are any different words, for example tractor- dawn.
All considered groupings can be presented in the table.
