The content of school chemical education. Modern chemical education in Russia: standards, textbooks, olympiads, exams. The main ideas of the school chemistry course

School chemistry education in Russia:
standards, textbooks, olympiads, exams

V.V. Eremin, N.E. Kuzmenko, V.V. Lunin, O.N. Ryzhova
Faculty of Chemistry, Moscow State University M.V. Lomonosov

Chemistry is a social science in the sense that it develops, first of all, in those directions that are dictated by social needs. Content chemical education, including school, is also determined by public interests and society's attitude to science. In Russia, under the influence of Western financial institutions, a reform (modernization) of the entire education system is now taking place with the aim of "entry of new generations into the globalized world." This reform, in the form in which it was conceived, posed a serious threat to chemical education in Russia. The rapid implementation of the reform could lead to the fact that the subject "Chemistry" in the school would be eliminated and replaced by an integrated course "Natural Science". This has been avoided.

The reform manifested itself in a different way. Its fundamentally new consequence is that for the first time in the country a unified state standard of school education has been prepared, which clearly articulates what and how to teach at school. The standard stipulates the teaching of chemistry in a concentric scheme with the division of general (grades 8-9) and secondary (grades 10-11) education. Despite its rigid structure, the new standard takes into account the development trends of modern chemistry and its role in the natural sciences and in society, and can serve as a tool for the development of chemical education. The first step in using the new standard for school chemistry education has already been taken: on its basis, a draft school curriculum has been created and school textbooks in chemistry for grades 8 and 9 have been written.

Abstract. The current state of school chemistry education in Russia is discussed. The fundamental novelty of the situation lies in the fact that for the first time a unified state standard of school education has been prepared. The ideological background and content of the standard in chemistry are considered. The concept and methodological principles of a new school curriculum in chemistry and a new set of school textbooks written by the team of authors of the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University on the basis of this standard are presented. The role of Chemistry Olympiads in the system of school education was discussed.

Chemistry suffers more than other natural sciences. Most people associate this science with chemical weapons, environmental pollution, man-made disasters, drug production, etc. Overcoming "chemophobia" and mass chemical illiteracy, creating an attractive public image of chemistry is one of the main tasks of school chemistry education, the current state of which we want to discuss in Russia.

I	The program of modernization (reform) of education in Russia and its shortcomings
II	Problems of school chemistry education
III	New state standard for school chemistry education
IV	New school curriculum and new chemistry textbooks
V	Modern system of chemistry olympiads
	Literature

Information about authors

Vadim Vladimirovich Eremin, Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University M.V. Lomonosov, laureate of the Russian Presidential Prize in the field of education. Research interests: quantum dynamics of intramolecular processes, time resolution spectroscopy, femtochemistry, chemical education.
Nikolai Yegorovich Kuzmenko, Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Professor, Deputy Dean of the Faculty of Chemistry, Moscow State University M.V. Lomonosov, laureate of the Russian Presidential Prize in the field of education. Scientific interests: molecular spectroscopy, intramolecular dynamics, chemical education.
Valery Vasilievich Lunin, Doctor of Chemical Sciences, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Professor, Dean of the Faculty of Chemistry, Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov, laureate of the Russian Presidential Prize in the field of education. Scientific interests: surface physical chemistry, catalysis, ozone physics and chemistry, chemical education.
Oksana Nikolaevna Ryzhova, Junior Researcher, Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University M.V. Lomonosov. Scientific interests: physical chemistry, chemical olympiads for schoolchildren.

This work was supported in part by the State Program for the Support of Leading Scientific Schools of the Russian Federation (project NSh no. 1275.2003.3).

Performance on the second
Moscow Pedagogical Marathon
subjects, April 9, 2003

The natural sciences around the world are going through hard times. Financial flows are leaving science and education for the military-political sphere, the prestige of scientists and teachers is falling, and the lack of education of most of society is growing rapidly. Ignorance rules the world. It comes to the point that in America, the Christian right is demanding the legal repeal of the second law of thermodynamics, which, in their opinion, contradicts religious doctrines.
Chemistry suffers more than other natural sciences. For most people, this science is associated with chemical weapons, environmental pollution, man-made disasters, drug production, etc. Overcoming "chemophobia" and mass chemical illiteracy, creating an attractive public image of chemistry is one of the tasks of chemical education, the current state of which in Russia we want to discuss.

Modernization (reform) program
education in Russia and its shortcomings

In the Soviet Union, there was a well-functioning system of chemistry education based on a linear approach, when the study of chemistry began in the middle grades and ended in the senior ones. A coordinated scheme for ensuring the educational process was developed, including: programs and textbooks, training and advanced training of teachers, a system of chemical olympiads at all levels, sets of teaching aids ("School Library", "Teacher's Library" and
etc.), public methodical magazines (“Chemistry at school”, etc.), demonstration and laboratory devices.
Education is a conservative and inert system, therefore, even after the collapse of the USSR, chemical education, which suffered heavy financial losses, continued to fulfill its tasks. However, a few years ago Russia began a reform of the education system, the main goal of which is to support the entry of new generations into the globalized world, into the open information community. For this, according to the authors of the reform, communication, informatics, foreign languages, and intercultural education should occupy a central place in the content of education. As you can see, there is no place in this reform for the natural sciences.
It was announced that the new reform should ensure the transition to a system of quality indicators and education standards comparable to the world. A plan of specific measures has also been developed, among which the main ones are the transition to a 12-year school education, the introduction of a unified state exam (USE) in the form of general testing, the development of new education standards based on a concentric scheme, according to which, by the time the nine-year period is over, students should have a holistic view about the subject.
How will this reform affect chemistry education in Russia? In our opinion, it is strongly negative. The fact is that among the developers of the Modernization Concept Russian education there was not a single representative of the natural sciences, so the interests of the natural sciences were completely ignored in this concept. The USE, in the form in which the authors of the reform conceived it, will spoil the system of transition from secondary to higher education, which universities worked so hard to form in the first years of Russia's independence, and destroy the continuity of Russian education.
One of the arguments in favor of the USE is that, according to the ideologists of the reform, it will provide equal access to higher education for various social strata and territorial groups of the population.

Our many years of distance learning experience related to the holding of the Soros Olympiad in Chemistry and part-time admission to the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University shows that distance testing, firstly, does not provide an objective assessment of knowledge, and secondly, does not provide students with equal opportunities . Over 5 years of Soros Olympiads, more than 100 thousand written papers in chemistry passed through our faculty, and we were convinced that the overall level of solutions very much depends on the region; in addition, the lower the educational level of the region, the more decommissioned works were sent from there. Another significant objection to the USE is that testing as a form of knowledge testing has significant limitations. Even a correctly designed test does not allow for an objective assessment of a student's ability to reason and draw conclusions. Our students studied the USE materials in chemistry and found big number incorrect or ambiguous questions that cannot be used to test students. We came to the conclusion that the USE can only be used as one of the forms of control over the work of secondary schools, but by no means as the only, monopoly mechanism of access to higher education.
Another negative aspect of the reform is related to the development of new education standards, which should bring the Russian education system closer to the European one. In the draft standards proposed in 2002 by the Ministry of Education, one of the main principles of science education was violated - objectivity. The leaders of the working group who drafted the project suggested thinking about abandoning separate school courses in chemistry, physics and biology and replacing them with a single integrated course in Natural Science. Such a decision, even if made for the long term, would simply bury chemical education in our country.
What can be done in these unfavorable domestic political conditions to preserve the traditions and develop chemical education in Russia? Now we are moving on to our positive program, much of which has already been implemented. This program has two main aspects - substantive and organizational: we are trying to determine the content of chemical education in our country and develop new forms of interaction between centers of chemical education.

New state standard
chemical education

Chemistry education starts at school. The content of school education is determined by the main regulatory document - the state standard of school education. Within the framework of the concentric scheme adopted by us, there are three standards in chemistry: basic general education(8th–9th grades), base mean And specialized secondary education(grades 10–11). One of us (N.E. Kuzmenko) headed the working group of the Ministry of Education on the preparation of standards, and by now these standards have been fully formulated and are ready for legislative approval.
Taking on the development of a standard for chemistry education, the authors proceeded from the development trends of modern chemistry and took into account its role in natural science and in society. Modern chemistry – it is a fundamental system of knowledge about the surrounding world, based on rich experimental material and reliable theoretical positions. The scientific content of the standard is based on two basic concepts: "substance" and "chemical reaction".
“Substance” is the main concept of chemistry. Substances surround us everywhere: in the air, food, soil, household appliances, plants and, finally, in ourselves. Some of these substances are given to us by nature in finished form (oxygen, water, proteins, carbohydrates, oil, gold), the other part is obtained by a person by a slight modification of natural compounds (asphalt or artificial fibers), but the largest number of substances that used to be in nature did not exist, man synthesized independently. This - modern materials, drugs, catalysts. To date, about 20 million organic and about 500 thousand species are known. inorganic substances, and each of them has an internal structure. Organic and inorganic synthesis has reached such a high degree of development that it is possible to synthesize compounds with any predetermined structure. In this regard, the foreground in modern chemistry comes
applied aspect, which focuses on relationships between the structure of matter and its properties, and the main task is to find and synthesize useful substances and materials with desired properties.
The most interesting thing about the world around us is that it is constantly changing. The second main concept of chemistry is "chemical reaction". Every second, an innumerable number of reactions take place in the world, as a result of which one substance turns into another. We can observe some reactions directly, for example, the rusting of iron objects, blood clotting, and the combustion of automobile fuel. At the same time, the vast majority of reactions remain invisible, but it is they that determine the properties of the world around us. In order to realize one's place in the world and learn how to manage it, a person must deeply understand the nature of these reactions and the laws that they obey.
The task of modern chemistry is to study the functions of substances in complex chemical and biological systems, to analyze the relationship between the structure of a substance and its functions, and to synthesize substances with given functions.
Based on the fact that the standard should serve as a tool for the development of education, it was proposed to unload the content of basic general education and leave in it only those content elements whose educational value is confirmed by domestic and world practice of teaching chemistry at school. This is a minimal in volume, but functionally complete system of knowledge.
Basic general education standard includes six content blocks:

Methods of knowledge of substances and chemical phenomena.
Substance.
Chemical reaction.
Elementary foundations of inorganic chemistry.
Initial ideas about organic substances.
Chemistry and life.

Basic Average Standard education is divided into five content blocks:

Methods of knowledge of chemistry.
Theoretical Foundations of Chemistry.
Inorganic chemistry.
Organic chemistry.
Chemistry and life.

The basis of both standards is the periodic law of D.I. Mendeleev, the theory of the structure of atoms and chemical bond, the theory of electrolytic dissociation and the structural theory of organic compounds.
The Basic Intermediate Standard is designed to provide the high school graduate primarily with the ability to navigate the social and personal problems associated with chemistry.
IN profile level standard the system of knowledge has been significantly expanded, primarily due to ideas about the structure of atoms and molecules, as well as about the patterns of chemical reactions, considered from the point of view of the theories of chemical kinetics and chemical thermodynamics. This ensures the preparation of secondary school graduates for the continuation of chemical education in higher education.

New program and new
chemistry textbooks

The new, scientifically based standard of chemical education has prepared fertile ground for the development of a new school curriculum and the creation of a set of school textbooks based on it. In this report, we present the school curriculum in chemistry for grades 8–9 and the concept of a series of textbooks for grades 8–11, created by the team of authors of the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University.
The program of the chemistry course of the main general education school is designed for students in grades 8–9. It differs from the standard programs currently operating in secondary schools in Russia by more verified interdisciplinary connections and an accurate selection of the material necessary to create a holistic natural science perception of the world, comfortable and safe interaction with environment in production and at home. The program is structured in such a way that it focuses on those sections of chemistry, terms and concepts that are somehow related to everyday life, and are not "armchair knowledge" of a narrowly limited circle of people whose activities are related to chemical science.
During the first year of studying chemistry (8th grade), the main attention is paid to the formation of elementary chemical skills, "chemical language" and chemical thinking in students. For this, objects familiar from everyday life (oxygen, air, water) were selected. In the 8th grade, we deliberately avoid the concept of “mole”, which is difficult for schoolchildren to perceive, and practically do not use calculation tasks. The main idea of this part of the course is to instill in students the skills to describe the properties of various substances grouped into classes, as well as to show the relationship between the structure of substances and their properties.
In the second year of study (9th grade), the introduction of additional chemical concepts is accompanied by a consideration of the structure and properties of inorganic substances. In a special section, the elements of organic chemistry and biochemistry are briefly considered in the scope provided for by the state standard of education.

To develop a chemical view of the world, the course contains broad correlations between the elementary chemical knowledge obtained by the children in the class and the properties of those objects that are known to schoolchildren in everyday life, but before that they were perceived only at the everyday level. Based on chemical concepts, students are invited to look at precious and decorative stones, glass, faience, porcelain, paints, food, modern materials. The program expands the range of objects that are described and discussed only at a qualitative level, without resorting to cumbersome chemical equations and complex formulas. We paid great attention to the style of presentation, which allows the introduction and discussion of chemical concepts and terms in a lively and visual form. In this regard, the interdisciplinary connections of chemistry with other sciences, not only natural, but also humanitarian, are constantly emphasized.
The new program is implemented in a set of school textbooks for grades 8-9, one of which has already been submitted for printing, and the other is in the process of being written. When creating textbooks, we took into account the change in the social role of chemistry and public interest in it, which is caused by two main interrelated factors. The first one is "chemophobia", i.e., the negative attitude of society towards chemistry and its manifestations. In this regard, it is important to explain at all levels that the bad is not in chemistry, but in people who do not understand the laws of nature or have moral problems.
Chemistry is a very powerful tool in the hands of man; there are no concepts of good and evil in its laws. Using the same laws, you can come up with a new technology for the synthesis of drugs or poisons, or you can - a new medicine or a new building material.
Another social factor is the progressive chemical illiteracy society at all its levels - from politicians and journalists to housewives. Most people have absolutely no idea what the world around is made of, they do not know the elementary properties of even the simplest substances and cannot distinguish nitrogen from ammonia, and ethyl alcohol from methyl alcohol. It is in this area that a competent textbook on chemistry, written in a simple and understandable language, can play a great educational role.
When creating textbooks, we proceeded from the following postulates.

The main tasks of the school chemistry course

1. Formation of a scientific picture of the surrounding world and the development of a natural-scientific worldview. Presentation of chemistry as a central science aimed at solving the pressing problems of mankind.
2. Development of chemical thinking, the ability to analyze the phenomena of the surrounding world in chemical terms, the ability to speak (and think) in a chemical language.
3. Popularization of chemical knowledge and the introduction of ideas about the role of chemistry in everyday life and its applied significance in society. Development of ecological thinking and acquaintance with modern chemical technologies.
4. Formation of practical skills for the safe handling of substances in everyday life.
5. Awakening a keen interest among schoolchildren in the study of chemistry both as part of the school curriculum and additionally.

The main ideas of the school chemistry course

1. Chemistry is the central science of nature, closely interacting with other natural sciences. The applied possibilities of chemistry are of fundamental importance for the life of society.
2. The world consists of substances that are characterized by a certain structure and are capable of mutual transformations. There is a connection between the structure and properties of substances. The task of chemistry is to create substances with useful properties.
3. The world around us is constantly changing. Its properties are determined by the chemical reactions that take place in it. In order to control these reactions, it is necessary to deeply understand the laws of chemistry.
4. Chemistry is a powerful tool for transforming nature and society. The safe use of chemistry is possible only in a highly developed society with stable moral categories.

Methodological principles and style of textbooks

1. The sequence of presentation of the material is focused on the study of the chemical properties of the surrounding world with a gradual and delicate (i.e. unobtrusive) acquaintance with the theoretical foundations of modern chemistry. Descriptive sections alternate with theoretical ones. The material is evenly distributed over the entire period of study.
2. Internal isolation, self-sufficiency and logical validity of the presentation. Any material is presented in the context of general problems of the development of science and society.
3. Constant demonstration of the connection of chemistry with life, frequent reminders of the applied significance of chemistry, popular science analysis of substances and materials that students encounter in everyday life.
4. High scientific level and rigor of presentation. The chemical properties of substances and chemical reactions are described as they really are. Chemistry in textbooks is real, not paper.
5. Friendly, light and impartial style of presentation. Simple, accessible and competent Russian. The use of “plots”—short, entertaining stories that link chemical knowledge to everyday life—to facilitate comprehension. Extensive use of illustrations, which make up about 15% of textbooks.
6. Two-level structure of material presentation. " Large font” is a basic level, the “small print” is for a deeper study.
7. Wide use of simple and visual demonstration experiments, laboratory and practical work to study the experimental aspects of chemistry and develop the practical skills of students.
8. The use of questions and tasks of two levels of complexity for a deeper assimilation and consolidation of the material.

We intend to include in the training package:

chemistry textbooks for grades 8–11;
methodical instructions for teachers, thematic lesson planning;
didactic materials;
a book for students to read;
reference tables in chemistry;
computer support in the form of CDs containing: a) an electronic version of the textbook; b) reference materials; c) demonstration experiments; d) illustrative material; e) animation models; f) programs for solving computational problems; g) didactic materials.

We hope that the new textbooks will allow many schoolchildren to take a fresh look at our subject and show them that chemistry is an exciting and very useful science.
In addition to textbooks, chemistry Olympiads play an important role in developing the interest of schoolchildren in chemistry.

Modern system Chemistry Olympiads

The system of Chemistry Olympiads is one of the few educational structures who survived the collapse of the country. The All-Union Olympiad in Chemistry was transformed into the All-Russian Olympiad, retaining its main features. Currently, this Olympiad is held in five stages: school, district, regional, federal district and final. The winners of the final stage represent Russia at the International Chemistry Olympiad. The most important from the point of view of education are the most massive stages - school and district, for which school teachers and methodological associations of cities and regions of Russia are responsible. The Ministry of Education is responsible for the entire Olympiad.
Interestingly, the former All-Union Chemistry Olympiad has also been preserved, but in a new capacity. Every year, the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University organizes an international Mendeleev Olympiad, in which winners and prize-winners of chemical Olympiads of the CIS and Baltic countries participate. Last year, this Olympiad was held with great success in Alma-Ata, this year - in the city of Pushchino, Moscow Region. The Mendeleev Olympiad allows talented children from the former republics of the Soviet Union to enter Moscow State University and other prestigious universities without exams. The communication of chemistry teachers during the Olympiad is also extremely valuable, which contributes to the preservation of a single chemical space on the territory of the former Soviet Union.
In the last five years, the number of subject Olympiads has increased dramatically due to the fact that many universities, in search of new forms of attracting applicants, began to hold their own Olympiads and count the results of these Olympiads as entrance exams. One of the pioneers of this movement was the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University, which annually holds correspondence olympiad in chemistry, physics and mathematics. This Olympiad, which we called “MSU Applicant”, is already 10 years old this year. It provides equal access to all groups of schoolchildren to study at Moscow State University. The Olympiad is held in two stages: correspondence and full-time. first - absentee- This stage is introductory. We publish assignments in all specialized newspapers and magazines and send assignments to schools. It takes about six months to make a decision. Those who have completed at least half of the tasks, we invite you to second stage - full-time tour, which takes place on the 20th of May. Written assignments in mathematics and chemistry make it possible to determine the winners of the Olympiad, who receive advantages when entering our faculty.
The geography of this Olympiad is unusually wide. Every year it is attended by representatives of all regions of Russia - from Kaliningrad to Vladivostok, as well as several dozen "foreigners" from the CIS countries. The development of this Olympiad has led to the fact that almost all talented children from the provinces come to study with us: more than 60% of the students of the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University are from other cities.
At the same time, university Olympiads are constantly under pressure from the Ministry of Education, which promotes the ideology of the Unified State Examination and seeks to deprive universities of independence in determining the forms of admission of applicants. And here, oddly enough, the All-Russian Olympiad comes to the aid of the ministry. The idea of the ministry is that only participants of those Olympiads that are organizationally integrated into the structure of the All-Russian Olympiad should have advantages when entering universities. Any university can independently conduct any Olympiad without any connection with the All-Russian, but the results of such an Olympiad will not be counted when entering this university.
If such an idea is legislated, it will deal a pretty severe blow to the university admission system and, most importantly, to graduate students, who will lose many incentives to enter the university of their choice.
However, this year admission to universities will be held according to the same rules, and in this regard, we want to talk about the entrance exam in chemistry at Moscow State University.

Entrance exam in chemistry at Moscow State University

The entrance exam in chemistry at Moscow State University is taken at six faculties: chemistry, biology, medicine, soil science, the faculty of materials sciences and the new faculty of bioengineering and bioinformatics. The exam is written and lasts 4 hours. During this time, students must solve 10 tasks of different levels of complexity: from trivial, i.e., "comforting", to rather complex ones, which allow differentiating grades.
None of the tasks requires special knowledge that goes beyond what is studied in specialized chemical schools. Nevertheless, most problems are structured in such a way that their solution requires reflection based not on memorization, but on mastery of the theory. As an example, we want to give several such problems from different branches of chemistry.

Theoretical chemistry

Task 1(Department of Biology). The rate constant of the A B isomerization reaction is 20 s -1 , and the rate constant of the reverse reaction B A is 12 s -1 . Calculate the composition of the equilibrium mixture (in grams) obtained from 10 g of substance A.

Solution
Let it turn into B x g of substance A, then the equilibrium mixture contains (10 – x) g A and x d B. At equilibrium, the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction:

20 (10 – x) = 12x,

where x = 6,25.
The composition of the equilibrium mixture: 3.75 g A, 6.25 g B.
Answer. 3.75 g A, 6.25 g B.

Inorganic chemistry

Task 2(Department of Biology). What volume of carbon dioxide (n.a.) must be passed through 200 g of a 0.74% solution of calcium hydroxide so that the mass of the precipitated precipitate is 1.5 g, and the solution above the precipitate does not give color with phenolphthalein?

Solution
When carbon dioxide is passed through a solution of calcium hydroxide, a precipitate of calcium carbonate is first formed:

which can then be dissolved in excess CO2:

CaCO 3 + CO 2 + H 2 O \u003d Ca (HCO 3) 2.

The dependence of the sediment mass on the amount of CO 2 substance has the following form:

With a lack of CO 2 the solution above the precipitate will contain Ca(OH) 2 and give a violet color with phenolphthalein. By the condition of this staining, there is no, therefore, CO 2 is in excess
compared to Ca (OH) 2, i.e., first all Ca (OH) 2 turns into CaCO 3, and then CaCO 3 partially dissolves into CO 2.

(Ca (OH) 2) \u003d 200 0.0074 / 74 \u003d 0.02 mol, (CaCO 3) \u003d 1.5 / 100 \u003d 0.015 mol.

In order for all Ca (OH) 2 to pass into CaCO 3, 0.02 mol CO 2 must be passed through the initial solution, and then another 0.005 mol CO 2 must be passed through so that 0.005 mol CaCO 3 dissolves and 0.015 mol remains.

V (CO 2) \u003d (0.02 + 0.005) 22.4 \u003d 0.56 l.

Answer. 0.56 l CO 2 .

Organic chemistry

Task 3(chemical faculty). An aromatic hydrocarbon with one benzene ring contains 90.91% carbon by mass. When 2.64 g of this hydrocarbon is oxidized with an acidified solution of potassium permanganate, 962 ml of gas is released (at 20 ° C and normal pressure), and upon nitration, a mixture is formed containing two mononitro derivatives. Establish the possible structure of the initial hydrocarbon and write the schemes of the mentioned reactions. How many mononitro derivatives are formed during the nitration of a hydrocarbon oxidation product?

Solution

1) Determine the molecular formula of the desired hydrocarbon:

(S): (H) \u003d (90.91 / 12): (9.09 / 1) \u003d 10:12.

Therefore, the hydrocarbon is C 10 H 12 ( M= 132 g/mol) with one double bond in the side chain.
2) Find the composition of the side chains:

(C 10 H 12) \u003d 2.64 / 132 \u003d 0.02 mol,

(CO 2) \u003d 101.3 0.962 / (8.31 293) \u003d 0.04 mol.

This means that two carbon atoms leave the C 10 H 12 molecule during oxidation with potassium permanganate, therefore, there were two substituents: CH 3 and C (CH 3) \u003d CH 2 or CH \u003d CH 2 and C 2 H 5.
3) Determine the relative orientation of the side chains: two mononitro derivatives during nitration give only a paraisomer:

Nitration of the complete oxidation product, terephthalic acid, produces only one mononitro derivative.

Biochemistry

Task 4(Department of Biology). With complete hydrolysis of 49.50 g of oligosaccharide, only one product was formed - glucose, during alcoholic fermentation of which 22.08 g of ethanol was obtained. Set the number of glucose residues in the oligosaccharide molecule and calculate the mass of water required for hydrolysis if the fermentation reaction yield is 80%.

N/( n – 1) = 0,30/0,25.

Where n = 6.
Answer. n = 6; m(H 2 O) = 4.50 g.

Task 5(Faculty of Medicine). Complete hydrolysis of Met-enkephalin pentapeptide yielded the following amino acids: glycine (Gly)—H2NCH2COOH, phenylalanine (Phe)—H2NCH(CH2C6H5)COOH, tyrosine (Tyr)—H2NCH( CH 2 C 6 H 4 OH)COOH, methionine (Met) - H 2 NCH (CH 2 CH 2 SCH 3)COOH. Substances with molecular masses of 295, 279, and 296 were isolated from the products of partial hydrolysis of the same peptide. Set two possible amino acid sequences in this peptide (in abbreviated notation) and calculate its molar mass.

Solution
Based on the molar masses of peptides, their composition can be determined using the hydrolysis equations:

dipeptide + H 2 O = amino acid I + amino acid II,
tripeptide + 2H 2 O = amino acid I + amino acid II + amino acid III.
Molecular weights of amino acids:

Gly - 75, Phe - 165, Tyr - 181, Met - 149.

295 + 2 18 = 75 + 75 + 181,
tripeptide, Gly–Gly–Tyr;

279 + 2 18 = 75 + 75 + 165,
tripeptide, Gly–Gly–Phe;

296 + 18 = 165 + 149,
dipeptide - Phe-Met.

These peptides can be combined into a pentapeptide in this way:

M\u003d 296 + 295 - 18 \u003d 573 g / mol.

The opposite amino acid sequence is also possible:

Tyr–Gly–Gly–Phe–Met.

Answer.
Met-Phe-Gly-Gly-Tyr,
Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Met; M= 573 g/mol.

Competition for the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University and other chemical universities has remained stable in recent years, and the level of training of applicants is growing. Therefore, summing up, we argue that, despite the difficult external and internal circumstances, chemical education in Russia has good prospects. The main thing that convinces us of this is the inexhaustible flow of young talents, passionate about our favorite science, striving to get a good education and benefit their country.

V.V. EREMIN,
Associate Professor, Faculty of Chemistry, Moscow State University,
N.E.KUZMENKO,
Professor of the Faculty of Chemistry, Moscow State University
(Moscow)

There is an opinion that the need for reform and modernization is a purely Russian national issue. Reform, modernization, restructuring regularly reach the secondary schools of almost all countries. New generations appear, values change, therefore, it is necessary to choose the priorities and guidelines of education, to improve the teaching methods.

USA: in America there is no single system of public education, each school does what it can.

In 1991, a fundamental analytical report was drawn up

One in three Americans can place their civil war in the correct half century. One in five can read the bus schedule or write an application for admission. A quarter with their class cannot finish school with their class. 30% of blacks and Hispanics are excluded from school. It is becoming increasingly difficult for American business circles to find skilled workers. They spend 20-40 billion a year on retraining their workers.

In 1999, the US National Commission on the Teaching of Mathematics and Science in the 21st Century was created. In 2000, the document "It's not too late" was developed: the main idea is that a country that wants to adequately meet the challenges of the time must rely primarily on a good mathematical and natural science education, otherwise this country has no future.

Norway: similar results came in Norway, the result of a sharp reduction in mathematics and natural sciences and (or) replacing them with an integrated natural science course. The result of a sharp decline was that graduates entering Norwegian universities were not able to master the fundamental disciplines.

China A: China's new education system (NTE) is a system oriented by a combination of science, technology and public interest. It is geared towards student solutions. practical tasks using the scientific knowledge that they receive. Great attention is directed to the maximum satisfaction of curiosity and maintaining enthusiasm in solving creative problems. For example, in organic chemistry there are questions:

General theoretical questions of organic chemistry.

Organic chemistry in everyday life.

Organic chemistry and traditional medicine.

Organic chemistry in agriculture in industry, military affairs, high technologies.

Great Britain: final exams in the UK.

The UK has a public education system. Most students take exams for a general certificate. The exam is not limited to testing, but is a comprehensive step-by-step test of knowledge, skills and abilities of high school graduates. In the UK, the development of tasks and the conduct of examinations is carried out by 5 independent examination councils. Coordinates and manages these councils Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA). This organization is non-governmental, but it is supported and funded by the UK Department for Education and Skills (DfES). Requirements for assessments and programs are standard, but 5 councils develop 5 sets of tasks. The student has the right to choose a set. You can take separate exams in a subject and receive grades or one or two exams in an integrated course for each subject. Testing of knowledge, skills, skills can be carried out either at the end of grade 11 or a series of boundary exams. There are several deadlines for taking exams. An exam or part of an exam can be retaken. In chemistry, two-level exams are offered: basic and advanced. Grades: A, B, C, D, E, F, G and U (failed). A to C - elevated level(for admission to universities), A * - a very high score. The education system in the UK is public, but nevertheless there are in-depth courses.

In England there is an in-depth study course ( SALTERS).

WellA- 2 years, 5 hours a week, the goal is an in-depth study of chemistry, which stimulates students to further knowledge of chemistry. The course consists of 13 sections, each section contains 3 parts: a description of the topic in the form of a story, practical work, conclusions and conclusions.

First part- this is a story-description (the basis of the section). Historical aspects and new developments, eg protein technology, protein technology begins with the story of a 10-year-old boy, Christopher, who had diabetes and needed insulin. The description provides key concepts that allow you to imagine the structure of the insulin molecule, its effect on the body, the possibility of modifying the molecule, then the concept of proteins, hormones, enzymes, familiarity with amino acids and the processes that allow them to synthesize, the role of DNA, RNA. Examples of the practical application of genetic engineering (cultivation of new varieties, weed control, etc.) are given.

Second part– practical work includes individual laboratory experiments and discussion of the results in small groups and class discussions. These entries are not graded. Chemical ideas, i.e. return at a higher level. Everything is brought into a system, some kind of harmonious concept.

At the end of the course, students receive 2 scientific articles. In two weeks, he must read them and write a report based on them, with a volume of 500 thousand words and a summary, 50 words. In this case, you can use any additional information. The only assessed practical research is an individual research (approximately 18 hours of study time, at least 9 hours for laboratory work, 18 hours of personal time). The student himself chooses a topic or listen to the advice of the teacher.

The study is aimed at expanding the scope of experimental or theoretical knowledge. The assessment is based on the choice of topic, work planning, work performance, observation and measurement, presentation and conclusions.

Sample topics for exam papers: factors affecting the ripening of bananas, factors affecting the composition of wastewater, factors, factors affecting the composition of milk

The disadvantages of this program include the lack of information about atoms. The basis of the project of Professor K.P. Lebedev, a research approach was put in the study of chemistry, the students' understanding of the practical significance of chemistry came to the fore, a great place was given to the independence of students in studying the quantitative side of chemical reactions. There was no systematic content in the program, the periodic law was not considered. Later, the project of Verkhovsky V.N. was adopted as a basis. taking into account the positive experience of using the Moscow program. A new stage in the development of the Soviet school began in 1931, when V.N. Verkhovsky created a program in chemistry and published the first textbook "Inorganic Chemistry". L.M. Smorgonsky and Ya.L. Goldfarb published the textbook Organic Chemistry and the Collection of Problems and Exercises in Chemistry. In 1935, "Methods of Teaching Chemistry" was published. The first in the Soviet methodology of chemistry was the work of the outstanding methodologist-chemist Sergei Gavrilovich Krapivin (1863-1926) “Notes on the Methods of Chemistry”, which discussed the problems of teaching this subject. Krapivin S.G. from 1920 he taught chemistry courses at the Tver Pedagogical Institute (practically its first teacher), and from 1925 he led classes on the methodology of teaching chemistry at pedagogical courses at the Moscow Higher technical school . Known as a teacher-methodologist and popularizer of chemistry. Smorgonsky Leonid Mikhailovich, teacher-chemist, from 1926 taught at a rural school, then worked at the Research Institute of Polytechnic Education of the Academy of Sciences of the RSFSR. He dealt with the problems of selecting the content and designing school chemistry education. He carried out an analysis of the content, methods and organization of teaching chemistry abroad (the work "Chemistry as a subject in secondary schools in Western Europe and the USA", 1939, etc.). Goldfarb Yakov Lazarevich, graduated from the gymnasium and short-term pedagogical courses, worked in 1919 as a teacher at a unified labor school in the city of Zhytomyr. In parallel with his studies at the pedagogical faculty of the 2nd Moscow State University, and then at the chemical department of the physics and mathematics faculty of the 1st Moscow State University, Yakov Lazarevich taught chemistry and mathematics at a secondary school. Goldfarb's research concerned a wide range of problems in organic chemistry. Distinctive features of his work were scrupulous execution (it was not for nothing that the scientist was often called a jeweler among his colleagues) and a constant interest in theoretical issues of organic chemistry. For many years he combined research work with teaching in secondary schools (1920-1930s) and universities (1930s-1960s). Goldfarb was the author of a number of textbooks and manuals that served and serve many generations of schoolchildren and teachers. So, for the period from 1932 to 1948, the textbook of organic chemistry for the 10th grade, written by him together with V.N. Verkhovsky and L.M. Smorgonsky, went through 13 editions and was translated into 24 languages. Goldfarb's work as a compiler of collections of tasks in chemistry for high school is unprecedented. In 1934, the 1st edition of the textbook 21 by Ya.L. This type of book for secondary school has not been published anywhere in the world before. The school chemistry course is undergoing further changes. In 1932 V.N. Verkhovsky compiled a program for grades 6-8. In 1933, together with L.M. Smorgonsky compiled a program for 9 classes in organic chemistry and for 10 cells. - Analytical. In 1934, the teaching of chemistry in the 6th grade was removed, and in 1936, analytical chemistry was excluded. The chemistry course at that time had the following structure and content: Grade 7 - substances and their transformations; water, oxygen and hydrogen; the concept of the element; law of conservation of mass of substances; air; constancy of the composition; atomic and molecular science; oxidation and reduction; oxides; grounds; acids and salts; class 8 - oxides; grounds; acids; salt; halogens; solutions; class 9 - carbon; the concept of dispersed systems; Periodic law; the structure of the atom; general properties of metals; alkaline and alkaline earth; aluminum, chromium, manganese, copper; Grade 10 - organic chemistry. The modern stage in the development of methods for teaching chemistry as a science begins with the emergence in 1944 of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences. Already in 1946, the fundamental works of the staff of the Laboratory of Chemistry Teaching Methods appeared: S.G. Shapovalenko, Yu.V. Khodakov and others. Sergey Grigoryevich Shapovalenko made an invaluable contribution to the teaching of inorganic chemistry in high school by solution. From 1922, he taught chemistry in schools and carried out research work. He was one of the first methodologists-chemists who published his articles on this topic in the journal "Chemistry at School", which determined the further development of a number of methodological areas. They were the first to characterize the types and types of tasks in chemistry, the methodology for their compilation and selection, show written, demonstration and laboratory solutions to problems for observing and explaining chemical phenomena, for obtaining substances, and solving problems of other types. The importance of chemical tasks for the assimilation of the basics of chemistry and the development of students was considered, first of all, tasks that were later called qualitative, related to the experiment, and not reduced to stoichiometric calculations. The author used the results of pedagogical experiments conducted by him in schools on this issue. From 1944 he worked in the APN system, in 1955-60s. He was director of the Research Institute of Teaching Methods. Shapovalenko S.G., revealing the methodological requirements for teaching, reminded that students should learn facts in the light of theories, and theories - inseparably from the facts; they must know how knowledge is acquired in science, how the main theories arose and developed; knowledge must be systematic, reflecting the natural relationships between substances; schoolchildren should be able to apply knowledge in practice, to master a chemical experiment. In his works, the features characterizing 22 reactions, which require knowledge about substances, chemical elements, chemical production, etc., are considered in detail. As a completely independent direction in the didactics of chemistry, he singled out the theory of the creation and use of technical teaching aids in chemistry lessons. Yuri Vladimirovich Khodakov, teacher-chemist, since 1930 he has been conducting scientific and teaching work at the Moscow Aviation Institute. S. Ordzhonikidze and at the Research Institute of Teaching Methods of the APS of the RSFSR. Author (together with others) of repeatedly reprinted stable textbooks on inorganic chemistry for secondary school (the textbook for grades 7-8 went through 15 editions, and for grade 9 - 14 editions); programs for universities and high schools; popular science works for children - stories-tasks in chemistry, as well as teaching aids for teachers. In 1954-55 academic year domestic schools have begun the transition to new curricula. The school was given the task of preparing students for life, further raising the level of general and polytechnic education. A new system of schools emerged: primary, eight-year, eleven-year secondary general education, labor, polytechnic and shift schools. By this time, new textbooks appeared: S.G. Shapovalenko, Yu.V. Khodakov, V.M. Verkhovsky, D.M. Kiryushkin. A special role in solving the issues of didactics of natural science education in the methodology of teaching chemistry in secondary school was brought by the author of textbooks and teaching aids, methodologist chemist Dmitry Maksimovich Kiryushkin. For the first time in the history of teaching chemistry in Russian schools, D.M. Kiryushkin began to use the pedagogical legacy of D.I. Mendeleev. Since 1932, chemistry was taught according to the "Educational Book on Chemistry", which was the basis for the creation of the first stable Soviet textbook on chemistry, according to which the Russian secondary school worked until 1949. This material was propaedeutic in nature, therefore, in 1934, the first domestic methodology for teaching chemistry was published, written by Kiryushkin D.M., Smorgonsky L.M., Goldfarb Ya.L., Parmenov K.Ya. and with the participation of Kokovin A.N. At the same time, a methodology for teaching chemistry at a seven-year school appeared (S.G. Shapovalenko, P.A. Gloriozov). Gloriozov Pavel Alexandrovich from 1919 taught chemistry in a rural school and schools in Moscow, is one of the authors of textbooks and manuals on inorganic chemistry (Honored Teacher of the School of the RSFSR, 1955). Until the early 1980s. the entire secondary school of the USSR studied according to a single curriculum and standard programs that were mandatory for all schools, so the methodological training in all pedagogical universities of the country was also the same. Programs on the methodology of teaching chemistry practically did not differ from one another. The most common was the program developed at the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute. Herzen (compiled by V.G. Androsova, V.P. Garkunov, I.L. Drizhun, S.V. Dyakovich, E.G. Zlotnikov, N.E. Kuznetsova, T.N. Ranimova, D.P. Erygin, V.N. Verkhovsky, S.I. Sozonov, S.G. Krapivin, A.D. Smirnov). It consisted of two sections - lecture and practical. The system of the school chemical experiment was the basis of the chemical workshop. Its content was concretized in the manual by Yuri Viktorovich Pletner and Viktor Semenovich Polosin "Practical work on the methodology of teaching chemistry." The main attention was paid to the implementation of experiments, the sequence of classes was determined by the logic of the topics of the school chemistry course. This sequence sometimes arbitrarily changed depending on the timing of the teaching practice, i.e. on what topic should be developed with students on the eve of their entry into schools. Other activities received much less attention. Conducting laboratory workshops with such an organization was more like an exchange of experience or classes with teachers at an advanced training institute. Subsequently, the methodology of chemistry was further developed and, in order to develop the individual inclinations of students, elective courses in chemistry were first introduced in schools (1966). In 1985, the general education and vocational schools were reformed. The change in the position of chemistry in the school curriculum required the completion of the study of inorganic chemistry in an incomplete secondary school, ensuring its greater accessibility, so a new course "Fundamentals of General Chemistry" was introduced at the final stage of education. In 1989, a group was organized to develop a draft of a new concept of school chemistry education based on the principle of differentiation. Each of the programs provides for the formation of one of 3 levels of chemical education for the student: basic (for each school graduate), advanced (for students in the natural sciences of education) and advanced, designed to prepare schoolchildren to continue their education at the university. In the modern pedagogical school, domestic teachers-chemists stood out for their work - B.V. Nekrasov, N.L. Glinka, M.Kh. Karapetyants, S.A. Shchukarev and others. Our contemporaries as methodologists in the field of teaching are such practitioners as G.M. Chernobelskaya, D.P. Erygin, O.S. Zaitsev, N.E. Kuznetsova, M.S. Pak, E.E. Minchenkov, A.A. Makarena, E.G. Zlotnikov, P.A. Orzhekovsky and many others. Foreign teachers-chemists include L. Pauling, D. Campbell, G. Seaborg. The creators of the national school of methods of teaching chemistry are S.G. Shapovalenko, D.M. Kiryushkina, Yu.V. Khodakov, L.A. Tsvetkova and others. Thus, school chemistry education has undergone significant changes, which entailed the need to restructure the curriculum in accordance with the State Standard. 24 2.2. Methods of Teaching Chemistry as a Subject at a Higher School The academic discipline on the methods of teaching chemistry at a higher educational institution provides professional training for a modern chemistry teacher. The extent to which the teacher owns the methodology depends on the success of the lesson, the improvement of the teacher's skills, and his authority among the students. The main task of the methodology of teaching chemistry as an academic discipline is to provide conditions for students to master the knowledge and skills necessary to work in high school. For students, the structure of the study of science and the construction of an academic discipline are important. The methodology of teaching chemistry is studied in a certain sequence: first, the main educational, educating and developing functions of the subject of chemistry in high school are considered. Next, students are introduced to general questions organization of the process of teaching chemistry, the structural elements of which are the basics of the learning process, methods of teaching chemistry, teaching aids, organizational forms of teaching, methods of extracurricular work on the subject, recommendations for the lesson and its individual stages. A certain section of the methodology for teaching chemistry is devoted to the study of certain topics of the school course in chemistry. The training of a chemistry teacher in a modern school is inherently associated with the use of a variety of pedagogical technologies and information tools for teaching chemistry. At the final stage, the basics of research work in the field of chemistry methodology and ways to increase its effectiveness in practice are considered. The study of the methodology of chemistry should not be limited to a lecture course. Students are given the opportunity to acquire skills in preparing and conducting a demonstration chemical experiment, mastering the methodology for teaching school curriculum topics in chemistry, teaching students how to solve chemical problems, planning and conducting fragments of lessons and extracurricular activities, etc. Particular importance is attached to the work on creative tasks, which allows students to form a folder of preparation for teaching practice. It should be noted that the systematic start of collecting this case of documents begins in the 3rd year of study at the university. Teaching practice is the so-called litmus test for preparing a student for future professional activity and a criterion for the quality of his preparation. In the course of laboratory classes, students master modern pedagogical technologies using new educational information tools. In general, the course of methods of teaching chemistry in the course of theoretical and practical training of students should reveal the content, structure and methodology of studying the school course of chemistry, familiarize with the features of teaching chemistry in schools of various levels and profiles. It is necessary to form stable skills and abilities of future chemistry teachers in using modern methods and means of teaching chemistry, to ensure the assimilation of the basic requirements for a modern chemistry lesson and to achieve their implementation in practice, to familiarize them with the features of conducting elective courses in chemistry and various forms of extracurricular work on the subject. Thus, the system of the university course in the methodology of teaching chemistry to a large extent forms the basic knowledge, skills and abilities of the future chemistry teacher. Questions for self-control 1. Definition of the concept "Methods of teaching chemistry." 2. Determining the subject of the methodology for teaching chemistry as a science. 3. Tasks of the methodology of teaching chemistry. 4. Research methods for teaching chemistry. 5. The main stages in the formation of the methodology of chemistry as a science. 6. Determination of the current state and problems of the methodology of teaching chemistry. 7. Methods of teaching chemistry as a subject in a pedagogical university. 8. Determination of the basic requirements of society for the professional qualities of a chemistry teacher. 9. Which of these qualities do you already possess? Topic 3. Goals, content and structure of chemical education in secondary school 3.1. General provisions The main components of the learning process in chemistry are: learning objectives, subject content, methods and means, the activities of the teacher and students and the results achieved. For a long time, the presentation of the school course in chemistry was of an unsystematic nature and had applied significance, since there was no system-forming core around which this course could be formed. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries, the study of chemistry in Russian schools was canceled. The study of educational material based on the periodic law and the periodic system chemical elements not only provides the possibility of its logical deployment, but is also the best from a methodological point of view, as it gives students the opportunity to better understand the content of the course and consciously assimilate the material to be studied. But, as often happens, in secondary schools the periodic law was not studied for a long time, since it was considered inaccessible to students. As mentioned above, the first stable textbook on inorganic chemistry in the country was written in the early 1930s by V.N. Verkhovsky, L.M. Smorgonsky, Ya.L. Goldfarb. In the future, the content of teaching chemistry as a result of the development of chemical science and society in Russia has repeatedly undergone changes. 26 Currently, school chemistry education is based on the study of the following basic theoretical concepts: 1. atomic and molecular theory, 2. theory of electrolytic dissociation, 3. mechanism and conditions for chemical reactions, 4. periodic law and periodic system of chemical elements D.I. Mendeleev, 5. theory of the structure of organic compounds by A.M. Butlerov. The professional activity of a modern chemistry teacher begins with correctly defined tasks of the learning process that contribute to the selection of content, the choice of structure, the implementation of methods and teaching aids. Therefore, at each lesson, the teacher must not only clearly and reasonably state the main goal and objectives of the lesson, but also determine the sub-goals of each of the stages of the lesson. Only by designating a common goal and logically ensuing sub-goals of the learning process, a chemistry teacher will be able to complete the entire process of teaching and education. The content of the school course includes familiarization of students with the basics of science, laws, theories, concepts, which contributes to the formation of a scientific picture of the world among students, the comprehensive development of the personality, fostering interest in the subject, and ensures the intellectual development of students. A school course in chemistry is formed by two main knowledge systems - a system of knowledge about matter and a system of knowledge about chemical reactions. From a huge variety of substances, the following were selected for study: - having great cognitive value (hydrogen, oxygen, input, bases, salts); - of great practical importance (mineral fertilizers, ion exchangers, soaps, synthetic detergents, etc.); - playing an important role in inanimate and living nature (silicon and calcium compounds, fats, proteins, carbohydrates, etc.); - on the example of which one can give an idea of technological processes and chemical production (ammonia, sulfuric and nitric acid, ethylene, aldehydes, etc. ); - reflective achievements modern science and production (catalysts, synthetic rubbers and fibers, plastics, artificial diamonds, synthetic amino acids, proteins, etc.). The domestic school course is based on the study of the concept of matter. variability school programs in chemistry defines an invariant core, that is, a material that is the same for all programs. The content of the school subject of chemistry should contain the following: a system of scientific, chemical, knowledge; a system of skills and abilities (special, intellectual, general educational); description of the experience of creative and industrial activity accumulated by mankind in the field of chemistry; displaying the position of chemistry in the surrounding reality; opportunities for the development and education of students on the material of the subject. 27 The content and structure of a chemistry course must comply with certain didactic principles, criteria and ideas that complement each other. Principles of building school programs in chemistry: The principle of scientific character establishes the selection in the curriculum of only those theories, laws, facts, phenomena and issues that are scientifically proven and beyond doubt. In addition, it is necessary to familiarize students with research methods. The principle of accessibility determines the level and volume of scientific information, as well as the list of research methods of this science, so that students, due to different age characteristics and the amount of acquired knowledge, could learn all the textbook material. The principle of systematicity provides for a certain construction of the content of the school course, logic, the sequence of presentation of the material from the known to the unknown, from the simple to the complex (deduction and induction). The principle of consistency implies the reflection in the textbook of an integral system of scientific knowledge with all their facts, connections, theories, etc. The principle of historicism requires that the textbook provide examples of the development of science and its methodology, the contribution of scientists to certain discoveries, the role of these discoveries, etc. d. The principle of linking learning with life, with practice determines the use of examples of the applied value of chemistry in textbooks, which largely ensures the interest of students in chemistry, that is, the motivation for learning. In addition, both the textbook and all teaching of chemistry must comply with the principle of safety and the principle of health saving (the valeological aspect of teaching). These principles and criteria for selecting the content of educational material for school disciplines (according to Yu.K. Babansky) are supplemented by: The criterion of scientific significance, reflecting the breadth of application of scientific knowledge. Knowledge that is universal in nature should be included first. On this basis, in current programs in chemistry included the Periodic law and the periodic system of chemical elements D.I. Mendeleev, the law on the conservation and transformation of energy, the theory of the structure of organic substances A.M. Butlerova et al. The criterion for the correspondence of the volume of the content of the subject of time allotted for the study of chemistry. In connection with the reduction of hours for the study of chemistry, the content of the subject should also change. The criterion of compliance with the conditions available in the mass school. Schools should have standard chemistry classrooms equipped in accordance with the lists of necessary chemical equipment in accordance with modern requirements. The content of the practical (experimental) component of the school textbook should correspond to the possibilities to conduct the necessary experiments at school. 28 Criteria for compliance with state educational and international standards. The criterion of the integrity of the content of educational material. 3.2. The place of the topic in the course of chemistry in secondary schools At present, the number of chemistry textbooks recommended and approved by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation for teaching school students is quite large. The authors of each line of programs and textbooks offer their own approaches to the study of the introductory topic of the school chemistry course in the 8th grade. For example, according to the author's program and textbook O.S. Gabrielyan is given 26 hours to study the initial chemical concepts. Moreover, the presentation of concepts takes place within the framework of several topics: "Introduction" - 3 hours; "Atoms of chemical elements" - 9 hours; " Simple substances " - 7 o'clock; "Changes occurring with substances" - 7 hours. L.S. Guzey and R.P. Surovtsev, in her line of textbooks, 16–22 hours are allocated for the study of initial concepts, of which 7/9 hours are devoted to the topic “Subject of Chemistry”, 4/5 to the topic “Chemical Element” and 5/9 to the topic “Quantitative Relations in chemistry". All three topics are presented at the beginning of the textbook and follow one after another. It is planned to carry out 2 practical works: "Cleaning of contaminated table salt" and "Signs of chemical reactions". According to E.E. Minchenkov and others are given 21 hours to study the initial chemical concepts within the framework of the topic “The most important chemical concepts”. Included practical work: methods of handling laboratory equipment and the study of safety; calcination of copper wire and the interaction of chalk with acid are examples of chemical phenomena. The very process of school chemistry education is based on the application of the principle of concentration. The system of knowledge about chemical reactions is associated with complex thermodynamic concepts, students study the main types of chemical reactions, the laws of their course, and ways to control processes. Students receive initial ideas about substances and chemical reactions in the topics: “Initial chemical concepts”, “Oxygen. Oxides. Combustion”, “Hydrogen. Acids. Salt", "Water. Foundations. Solutions. It is not necessary that all school textbooks of the 8th grade have just such named topics, but the initial knowledge of students on these issues is necessarily studied at the first chemistry lessons. The acquired knowledge is the basis for studying the periodic law and the periodic system, and therefore for further study of the entire school course in chemistry. Further development of the concepts of matter and chemical reaction is envisaged in the study of the theory of electrolytic dissociation. On its basis, knowledge of the periodic law is deepened, material is generalized on the classes of inorganic compounds, on chemical reactions occurring in aqueous solutions, their regularities are revealed, the essence of exchange and redox processes is deepened. The systematic course of inorganic chemistry includes the study of metals and non-metals based on theoretical knowledge about the structure of atoms, the periodic law and the periodic system. Non-metals are studied first. A direct consideration of the systematic course begins with halogens as elements of the main subgroup of group VII. First, a general description of the subgroup is given, then one or two of the most important elements of the main subgroup are characterized in more detail, and by analogy, in the future, other elements are more briefly analyzed. The study of metals begins with their general properties. Students get acquainted with the reason for the manifestation of their physical and chemical properties - with a metallic bond and features of the crystal lattice of metals, ideas about alloys, an electrochemical series of voltages, with the most important chemical properties metals, study the electrolysis of salts, corrosion of metals. Some methodologists recommend that the questions of the classification of metals be determined at the beginning of the study of the topic. According to the requirements of the State Standard, the basics of studying organic chemistry were transferred to the material of the 9th grade. Theoretical basis the course of organic chemistry is the theory of the structure of organic substances by A.M. Butlerov. This topic is based on the idea of genetic development of organic substances from hydrocarbons that are simple in composition and structure to complex proteins. The study of material in organic chemistry in the 9th grade is based on the concept of homology, when one or two representatives are first considered, then the established signs are extended to the entire homologous series. Without this principle of orientation towards the homology of substances, the study of fats, carbohydrates, amines, amino acids, and proteins is built. The school chemistry course ends with an overview of the theoretical generalization and systematization of knowledge in inorganic and organic chemistry. But there are exceptions, for example, according to the L.S. Guzey, the course of organic chemistry was transferred to the 11th grade, and in the 10th grade there was a generalization of material on general and inorganic chemistry. The teacher's choice of the necessary program from the variety of variable program complexes should be correlated with the mandatory minimum content in chemistry, which cannot be considered as a specific chemistry course. It should form the invariant core of the content of any variant programs and textbooks in chemistry, which may differ from each other in the breadth and depth of the disclosure of educational material. The state (final) certification of graduates of the ninth grade of general educational institutions in chemistry was developed by the Federal Institute of Pedagogical Measurements (FIPI). Documents regulating the development of examination materials for the state (final) certification of graduates of the ninth grade of general educational institutions in a new form in chemistry include: a codifier of content elements for compiling control measuring materials; thirty

Lecture 1.1.

Modern requirements for professional training

chemistry teachers

Plan:

1. Requirements for a modern chemistry teacher in accordance with the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard

4. Goals, content and structure of chemical education in secondary school

Modern chemistry teacher should not only possess subject knowledge, methodological techniques and modern pedagogical technologies, but also apply them in practice, modeling and analyzing various pedagogical situations.

Recently, the problem of standardization of school chemistry education has become topical. This is due to the transition of schools to new, freer forms of organization of the educational process. Federal State Standard of Education determines the norms and requirements of the mandatory minimum content of the main educational programs of general education, the maximum volume of the teaching load of students, the level of training of graduates of educational institutions, as well as the basic requirements for ensuring the educational process.

The state standard of general education is the basis for the development of the curriculum, exemplary programs in academic subjects; objective assessment of the level of training of graduates of educational institutions; objective evaluation of the activities of the educational institutions themselves; establishing federal requirements for educational institutions in terms of equipping the educational process, equipping classrooms. The state standard of general education includes three components: a federal, regional (national-regional) component and an educational institution component.

Profile training starts from the 10th grade. E lecture subjects(9 cells) are mandatory at the choice of students from the component of the educational institution. In basic education, chemistry is given 1 hour a week in grades 10-11, and in profile classes - up to 3 hours a week. The following directions for the specification of profile classes are determined:

Ø when studying in non-core classes (classes of a universal, i.e., general education profile), as well as at the basic level, it is assumed in classes of physics and mathematics, economics, information technology, social and humanitarian profiles;

Ø study of chemistry at the profile level in the classes of physical-chemical, chemical-biological, biological-geographical and other profiles;

Ø in the classes of psychological and pedagogical, socio-economic, social-humanitarian, philological, artistic and aesthetic profiles, the curricula provide for the possibility of including chemistry in the Natural Science course (3 hours a week in grades 10-11).

Thus, the system of pre-profile education through elective courses in chemistry should provide: - support for the study of a given school subject through the deepening, expansion, systematization of the material, for example, a deeper study of the elements of a given group or members of a homologous series; - intraprofile specialization of training; - education of a socially adapted and competent personality of a graduate; - to carry out preliminary preparation of students for the exam in chemistry, etc.

The practice of using variable at school chemistry programs revealed the objective need to apply a special technology for the development of successive basic programs and educational and methodological sets for them. The basis of this software development technology is the following:

3. In accordance with the principle of continuity, the main studied units of content are further developed. This is expressed in the linear-cyclic structure of courses representing a given subject area. At the same time, at each stage of the general education school, along with general tasks, specific ones are also solved, related to the age characteristics of students and the characteristics of the educational institution.

4. The planned results of mastering the content of the curriculum are correlated with the "Requirements for the level of training of graduates."

Each program reflects invariant content chemistry course for the corresponding level of the school and the logic of its study. The programs are not working, but can only serve as a guideline for the development of individual curricula, the logic of construction and the variable part of the content of which will meet the author's intentions of each chemistry teacher.

Chemistry Teaching Theory as a Pedagogical Science

Theory of learning (didactics) of chemistry traditionally considered as a relatively independent part of pedagogical science. Modern didactics (teaching chemistry) is designed to implement the ideas of humane pedagogy aimed at the formation of a free, creative, socially active, useful and successful personality in the context of the implementation of school chemistry education. Knowledge of the theory of learning is necessary for every teacher of chemistry, since the tasks of education, upbringing and development of students in pedagogical activity most effectively solved based on scientific knowledge.

Didactics (from the Greek didaktikos - "teaching, teaching") - the theory of learning.

Even in ancient Greece, a teacher teaching at school was called a didascal. The term "didactics" appeared in the 17th century. It was introduced by V. Rathke in the meaning of "the art of learning." In his book The Great Didactics, he defined didactics as "the universal art of teaching everything to everyone." However, with the development of pedagogical science, didactics gradually focused its attention exclusively on the educational process.

Modern definition (based on research,) didactics of teaching chemistry- This a relatively independent section of pedagogy, a science that studies the theoretical and methodological foundations of teaching chemistry, provides scientific justification for the goals, content, methods, means, organization of training and education.

The subject of modern didactics teaching chemistry is the relationship and interaction of teaching (teaching and educational activities of a chemistry teacher) and teaching (educational and cognitive activities of students).

Main groups tasks of modern didactics:

1) describe and explain the process of teaching chemistry and the conditions for its flow;

2) improve the process of teaching chemistry, develop new, more effective teaching systems and educational technologies for school chemistry education.

The theory of teaching chemistry as a pedagogical science is a private, subject didactics, that is, it is a science that is at the intersection of chemical and psychological and pedagogical sciences. The subject of the course is a discipline of school orientation, the content and structure of which is a special pedagogical structure, as well as the process of mastering the content of chemical education by students in the relationship between the activities of the teacher and the student. The theory of teaching chemistry is in close relationship with the psychological and pedagogical, chemical, social and other disciplines.

Chemistry learning theory as a science defines the following questions:

1.Formulirovanie goals and objectives facing the teacher in teaching students chemistry. The methodology should first answer the question of defining the tasks of chemistry in the structure of secondary education. In general, why teach chemistry in high school? This takes into account the logic of the development and achievements of chemical science, its history, psychological and pedagogical conditions, as well as the determination of the optimal ratio of theoretical and factual material. The goal of general chemical education is to ensure that every young person acquires the knowledge and skills necessary both for use in everyday and work activities, and for further chemical education and the formation of a unified chemical picture of the world (ECCM).

2. The selection of content and the design of the construction of the subject of chemistry in accordance with the objectives of the course of chemistry in high school and didactic requirements for its teaching. This is the next question of chemistry methodology: what to teach? The goals and content of chemical education are fixed in curricula, textbooks, textbooks in chemistry.

3. The methodology of chemistry as a science must develop appropriate teaching methods and recommend the most rational and effective means, techniques and forms of teaching. Solving this problem will answer the question: how to teach? Teaching is the teacher's activity aimed at transmitting chemical information to students, organizing the educational process, and directing their cognitive activity. , instilling practical skills, developing creative abilities and forming the foundations of a scientific worldview.

The theory of teaching chemistry is a pedagogical science that studies the content of a school course in chemistry and the patterns of its assimilation by students. In general, TOC solves the following problems: determines the goals and objectives of teaching chemistry, determines the content of the subject, develops methods, means and forms of teaching, studies the process of mastering the subject by students.

The theory of teaching chemistry as a subject at the university

The academic discipline on the theory of teaching chemistry at the university provides professional training for a modern chemistry teacher. The extent to which the teacher owns the methodology depends on the success of the lesson, the improvement of the teacher's skills, and his authority among the students.

The main task of TOH as an academic discipline is to provide conditions for students to master the knowledge and skills necessary to work in a secondary school. For students, the structure of the study of science and the construction of an academic discipline are important. The theory of teaching chemistry is studied in a certain sequence: first, the main educational, educating and developing functions of the subject of chemistry in high school are considered. Next, students are introduced to the general issues of organizing the process of teaching chemistry, the structural elements of which are the basics of the learning process, methods of teaching chemistry, teaching aids, organizational forms of teaching, methods of extracurricular work on the subject, recommendations for conducting a lesson and its individual stages. The training of a chemistry teacher in a modern school is inherently associated with the use of a variety of pedagogical technologies and information tools for teaching chemistry. At the final stage, the basics of research work in the field of chemistry methodology and ways to increase its effectiveness in practice are considered.

In general, the course of the theory of teaching chemistry in the course of theoretical and practical training of students should reveal the content, structure and methodology of studying the school course of chemistry, familiarize with the features of teaching chemistry in schools of various levels and profiles. It is necessary to form stable skills and abilities of future chemistry teachers in using modern methods and means of teaching chemistry, to ensure the assimilation of the basic requirements for a modern chemistry lesson and to achieve their implementation in practice, to familiarize them with the features of conducting elective courses in chemistry and various forms of extracurricular work on the subject. Thus, the system of the university course of TOC to a large extent forms the basic knowledge, skills and abilities of the future chemistry teacher.

Questions for self-control

1. Definition of the concept of "Chemistry Learning Theory".

2. Definition of the subject of the theory of teaching chemistry as a science.

3. Course objectives.

4. Research Methods for Chemistry Teaching Theory.

5. The main stages in the formation of the theory of teaching chemistry as a science.

6. Determination of the current state and problems of TOX.

7. The theory of teaching chemistry as a subject in a pedagogical university.

8. Determination of the basic requirements of society for the professional qualities of a chemistry teacher.

9. Which of these qualities do you already possess?

in middle school

The main components of the learning process in chemistry are: learning objectives, subject content, methods and means, the activities of the teacher and students and the results achieved.

Currently, school chemistry education is based on the study of the following basic theoretical concepts:

1. atomic and molecular science,

2. theory of electrolytic dissociation,

3. mechanism and conditions for the occurrence of chemical reactions,

4. periodic law and the periodic system of chemical elements,

5. theory of the structure of organic compounds.

The professional activity of a modern chemistry teacher begins with correctly defined tasks of the learning process that contribute to the selection of content, the choice of structure, the implementation of methods and teaching aids. Therefore, at each lesson, the teacher must not only clearly and reasonably state the main goal and objectives of the lesson, but also determine the sub-goals of each of the stages of the lesson. Only by designating a common goal and logically ensuing sub-goals of the learning process, a chemistry teacher will be able to complete the entire process of teaching and education.

A school course in chemistry is formed by two main knowledge systems - a system of knowledge about matter and a system of knowledge about chemical reactions. From a huge variety of substances, the following were selected for study:

Having great cognitive value (hydrogen, oxygen, input, bases, salts);

Of great practical importance (mineral fertilizers, ion exchangers, soaps, synthetic detergents, etc.);

Playing an important role in inanimate and living nature (silicon and calcium compounds, fats, proteins, carbohydrates, etc.);

On the example of which one can give ideas about technological processes and chemical industries (ammonia, sulfuric and nitric acid, ethylene, aldehydes, etc.);

Reflecting the achievements of modern science and production (catalysts, synthetic rubbers and fibers, plastics, artificial diamonds, synthetic amino acids, proteins, etc.).

The domestic school course is based on the study of the concept of matter.

The variability of school programs in chemistry determines the invariant core, that is, the material that is the same for all programs. The content of the school subject of chemistry should contain the following: a system of scientific, chemical, knowledge; a system of skills and abilities (special, intellectual, general educational); description of the experience of creative and industrial activity accumulated by mankind in the field of chemistry; displaying the position of chemistry in the surrounding reality; opportunities for the development and education of students on the material of the subject.

Principles of building school programs in chemistry :

The principle of scientific character establishes the selection in the curriculum of only those theories, laws, facts, phenomena and issues that are scientifically proven and beyond doubt. In addition, it is necessary to familiarize students with research methods.

The principle of accessibility determines the level and volume of scientific information, as well as the list of research methods of this science, so that students, due to different age characteristics and the amount of acquired knowledge, could learn all the textbook material.

The principle of systematicity provides for a certain construction of the content of the school course, logic, the sequence of presentation of the material from the known to the unknown, from the simple to the complex (deduction and induction).

The principle of consistency implies the reflection in the textbook of an integral system of scientific knowledge with all their facts, connections, theories, etc.

The principle of historicism requires that textbooks provide examples of the development of science and its methodology, the contribution of scientists to certain discoveries, the role of these discoveries, etc.

The principle of connecting learning with life, with practice determines the use of examples of the applied value of chemistry in textbooks, which to a large extent ensures students' interest in chemistry, that is, motivation for learning.

In addition, both the textbook and all teaching of chemistry must comply with the principle of safety and the principle of health saving (the valeological aspect of teaching).

These principles and criteria for selecting the content of educational material for school disciplines are supplemented (according to):

The criterion of scientific significance, reflecting the breadth of application of scientific knowledge. Knowledge that is universal in nature should be included first. On this basis, the current programs in chemistry include the Periodic Law and the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements, the law on the conservation and transformation of energy, the theory of the structure of organic substances, etc.

The criterion for the compliance of the volume of the content of the subject with the time allotted for the study of chemistry. In connection with the reduction of hours for the study of chemistry, the content of the subject should also change.

The criterion of compliance with the conditions available in the mass school. Schools should have standard chemistry classrooms equipped in accordance with the lists of necessary chemical equipment in accordance with modern requirements. The content of the practical (experimental) component of the school textbook should correspond to the possibilities to conduct the necessary experiments at school.

The criterion of compliance with state educational and international standards.

The criterion of the integrity of the content of educational material.