Flavius ​​Peter Savvatiy Justinian (lat. Flavius ​​Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus, Greek Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός), better known as Justinian I (Greek Ιουστινι ανός Α) or Justinian the Great (Greek Μέγας Ιουστινιανός; 483, Taurus, Upper Macedonia - November 14, 565 , Constantinople). Byzantine emperor from August 1, 527 until his death in 565. Justinian himself in the decrees called himself Caesar Flavius ​​Justinian of Alaman, Goth, Frank, German, Ant, Alan, Vandal, African.

Justinian, commander and reformer, is one of the most prominent monarchs of late antiquity. His reign marks an important stage in the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages and, accordingly, the transition from Roman traditions to the Byzantine style of government. Justinian was full of ambition, but he failed to complete the "restoration of the empire" (Latin renovatio imperii). In the West, he managed to take over a large part of the lands of the Western Roman Empire, which collapsed after the Great Migration of Peoples, including the Apennine Peninsula, the southeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula and part of North Africa. one more important event is the order of Justinian to revise Roman law, which resulted in a new code of laws - the code of Justinian (lat. Corpus iuris civilis). By decree of the emperor, who wanted to surpass Solomon and the legendary Jerusalem temple, the burned-out Hagia Sophia in Constantinople was completely rebuilt, striking in its beauty and splendor and remaining for a thousand years the most grandiose temple of the Christian world.

In 529, Justinian closed the Platonic Academy in Athens; in 542, the emperor abolished the office of consul, possibly for financial reasons. The increasing worship of the ruler as a saint finally destroyed the principate's illusion that the emperor was the first among equals (lat. primus inter pares). During the reign of Justinian, the first plague pandemic occurred in Byzantium and the largest rebellion in the history of Byzantium and Constantinople - the Nika revolt, provoked by tax oppression and the emperor's church policy.

Regarding the origin of Justinian and his family, there are various versions and theories. Most of the sources, mostly Greek and Oriental (Syrian, Arabic, Armenian), as well as Slavic (wholly based on Greek), call Justinian a Thracian; some Greek sources and the Latin chronicle of Victor Tonennesis call him an Illyrian; finally, Procopius of Caesarea asserts that Dardania was the birthplace of Justinian and Justin. All three of these definitions do not contradict each other. At the beginning of the 6th century, the civil administration of the Balkan Peninsula was divided between two prefectures. Praefectura praetorio per Illyricum, the smaller of them, included two dioceses - Dacia and Macedonia. Thus, when the sources write that Justin was Illyrian, they mean that he and his family were residents of the Illyrian prefecture. In turn, the province of Dardania was part of the diocese of Dacia. The fact that the name Sabbatius most likely comes from the name of the ancient Thracian deity Sabazius can also serve as confirmation of the Thracian theory of the origin of Justinian.

Up to late XIX century, the theory of the Slavic origin of Justinian was popular, based on the work of a certain abbot Theophilus (Bogumil) published by Niccolò Alamanni under the name Iustiniani Vita. It introduces for Justinian and his relatives special names that have a Slavic sound.

Thus, the father of Justinian, who was called Savvaty according to Byzantine sources, was named Istokus by Bogomil, and the name of Justinian himself sounded like Upravda. Although the origin of the book published by Alleman was in doubt, the theories based on it were intensively developed until, in 1883, James Bryce did research on the original manuscript in the library of the Barberini Palace. In an article published in 1887, he argued the point of view that this document is of no historical value, and Bogumil himself hardly existed. Currently, Iustiniani Vita is regarded as one of the legends linking the Slavs with the great figures of the past, such as Alexander the Great and Justinian.

Regarding the birthplace of Justinian, Procopius speaks quite definitely, placing him in a place called Tauresium (lat. Tauresium), next to the fort of Bederian (lat. Bederiana). About this place, Procopius further says that the city of Justiniana Prima was subsequently founded near it, the ruins of which are now located in the south-east of Serbia. Procopius also reports that Justinian significantly strengthened and made numerous improvements in the city of Ulpiana, renaming it Justiniana Secunda. Nearby, he erected another city, calling it Justinopolis, in honor of his uncle.

Most of the cities of Dardania were destroyed during the reign of Anastasius by a powerful earthquake in 518. Near the ruined capital of the province of Skupi, Justinopolis was built, a powerful wall with four towers was erected around Taurus, which Procopius calls Tetrapyrgia.

The names "Bederiana" and "Tavresii" have come down to our time in the form of the names of the villages of Bader and Taor near Skopje. Both these places were explored in 1885 by the English archaeologist Arthur Evans, who found rich numismatic material there, confirming the importance of the settlements located here after the 5th century. Evans concluded that the Skopje region was the birthplace of Justinian, confirming the identification of old settlements with modern villages.

The name of Justinian's mother, Justin's sister - Biglenitz is given in Iustiniani Vita, the unreliability of which is mentioned above. Since there is no other information on this subject, we can assume that her name is unknown. The fact that Justinian's mother was Justin's sister is confirmed by numerous sources.

Regarding Father Justinian, there is more reliable news. In The Secret History, Procopius gives the following story: “They say that his mother [Justiniana] used to tell someone close to him that he was not born from her husband Savvaty and not from any person. Before she became pregnant with him, a demon visited her, invisible, but left her with the impression that he was with her and had intercourse with her like a man with a woman, and then disappeared, as in a dream..

From here we learn the name of the father of Justinian - Savvaty. Another source where this name is mentioned is the so-called "Acts on Kallopodius", included in the chronicle of Theophanes and the "Easter Chronicle" and relating to the events immediately preceding the uprising of Nick. There, the prasins, in the course of a conversation with the representative of the emperor, utter the phrase “It would be better if Savvaty had not been born, he would not have given birth to a murderer son”.

Savvaty and his wife had two children, Peter Savvaty (lat. Petrus Sabbatius) and Vigilantia (lat. Vigilantia). Written sources nowhere mention the real name of Justinian, and only on the consular diptychs of 521 do we see the inscription lat. fl. Petr. Saturday. Justinian. v. i., com. mag. eqq. et p. praes., et c. od., meaning lat. Flavius ​​Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus, vir illustris, comes, magister equitum et peditum praesentalium et consul ordinarius.

The marriage of Justinian and Theodora was childless, nevertheless he had six nephews and nieces, of whom Justin II became heir.

Uncle Justinian - Justin, among other Illyrian peasants, fleeing extreme need, came on foot from Bederiana to Byzantium and was hired for military service. Having arrived at the end of the reign of Leo I in Constantinople and entered the service of the imperial guard, Justin quickly grew in service, and already in the reign of Anastasia he took part in the wars with Persia as a military leader. Further, Justin distinguished himself in suppressing the uprising of Vitalian. Thus, Justin won the favor of the emperor Anastasius and was appointed head of the palace guards with the rank of committee and senator.

The time of Justinian's arrival in the capital is not exactly known. It is assumed that this happened at about the age of twenty-five, then for some time Justinian studied theology and Roman law, after which he was awarded the title of Lat. candidati, that is, the emperor's personal bodyguard. Somewhere around this time, the adoption and change of the name of the future emperor took place.

On the death of Anastasius in 518, Justin succeeded in seizing power relatively easily, despite the fact that there were a large number of richer and more influential candidates. According to Procopius, this was the will higher powers interested in the final rise of Justinian. The election procedure is described by Peter Patricius. Among the reasons behind the election of Justin and the rise of Justinian is the support of Patriarch John II, who was assured that the new dynasty would be faithful to the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon, in contrast to the pro-Monophysite minded Anastasius. The theologically educated Justinian probably played an important role in this. Immediately after the election of Justin as emperor, he appointed his nephew Lat. comes domesticorum as the head of a special corps of the palace guard, as is known from a letter from Pope Hormizd, dated early 519.

In 521, as mentioned above, Justinian receives a consular rank, which he uses to increase his popularity by putting on magnificent spectacles in a circus that has grown so much that the Senate asked the aged emperor to appoint Justinian as his co-emperor. According to the chronicler John Zonara, Justin refused this offer. The Senate, however, continued to insist on the rise of Justinian, asking him to be given the title of Lat. nobilissimus, which happened until 525, when he was awarded the highest title of Caesar. Despite the fact that such a brilliant career could not but have a real impact, there is no reliable information about the role of Justinian in governing the empire during this period.

Over time, the health of the emperor deteriorated, the disease caused by an old wound in the leg intensified. Feeling the approach of death, Justin responded to the next petition of the Senate for the appointment of Justinian co-ruler. The ceremony, which has come down to us in the description of Peter Patricius in the treatise lat. De ceremoniis of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, occurred on Easter, April 4, 527 - Justinian and his wife Theodora were crowned both August and August.

Justinian finally received full power after the death of Emperor Justin I on August 1, 527.

Descriptions appearance Little of Justinian has survived. Justinian was depicted on one of the largest (36 solidi or ½-pound) medallions known, stolen in 1831 from the Paris Cabinet of Medals. The medallion was melted down, but its images and a cast have been preserved, allowing copies to be made from it.

The Roman-Germanic Museum in Cologne houses a copy of the Egyptian marble statue of Justinian. Some idea of ​​the appearance of the emperor is given by the preserved drawings of the column of Justinian erected in 542. Discovered in Kerch in 1891 and now kept in the Hermitage, the silver missorium was originally considered to be an image of Justinian. It is possible that Justinian is also depicted on the famous Barberini diptych, kept in the Louvre.

During the reign of Justinian, a large number of coins were issued. Known are donative coins of 36 and 4.5 solidus, a solidus with a full-figure image of the emperor in consular vestments, as well as an exceptionally rare aureus weighing 5.43 g, minted according to the old Roman foot. The obverse side of all these coins is occupied by either a three-quarter or profile bust of the emperor, with or without a helmet.

A vivid depiction of the early career of the future empress is given at great length in The Secret History; John of Ephesus simply notes that "she came from a brothel". Despite the opinion of some scholars that all these statements are unreliable and exaggerated, the generally accepted point of view generally agrees with the description of the events of Theodora's early career given by Procopius.

Justinian's first meeting with Theodora took place around 522 in Constantinople. Then Theodora left the capital, spent some time in Alexandria. How their second meeting took place is not known for certain. It is known that wanting to marry Theodora, Justinian asked his uncle to give her the rank of patrician, but this caused strong opposition from the Empress Euthymia, and until the death of the latter in 523 or 524, the marriage was impossible.

Probably, the adoption of the law “On Marriage” (lat. De nuptiis) during the reign of Justin, which repealed the law of Emperor Constantine I, which forbids a person who has reached the rank of senatorial rank, to marry a harlot, was probably connected with the desire of Justinian.

After marriage, Theodora completely broke with her turbulent past and was a faithful wife.

In foreign policy, the name of Justinian is associated primarily with the idea "restoration of the Roman Empire" or "Reconquest of the West". There are currently two theories regarding the question of when this goal was set. According to one of them, now more common, the idea of ​​the return of the West existed in Byzantium since the end of the 5th century. This point of view proceeds from the thesis that after the emergence of the barbarian kingdoms professing Arianism, there must have been preserved social elements that did not recognize the loss of Rome's status as a great city and capital of the civilized world and did not agree with the dominant position of the Arians in the religious sphere.

An alternative point of view, which does not deny the general desire to return the West to the bosom of civilization and orthodox religion, attributes the emergence of a program of concrete actions after successes in the war against the vandals. Various indirect signs speak in favor of this, for example, the disappearance from the legislation and state documentation of the first third of the 6th century of words and expressions that somehow mentioned Africa, Italy and Spain, as well as the loss of interest of the Byzantines in the first capital of the empire.

Perceiving himself as the heir of the Roman Caesars, Justinian considered it his duty to recreate the Roman Empire, while wishing that the state had one law and one faith. Based on the principle of absolute power, he believed that in a well-organized state, everything should be subject to imperial attention. Understanding the importance of the church for government controlled He made every effort to ensure that she did his will. The question of the primacy of the state or religious interests of Justinian is debatable. It is known, at least, that the emperor was the author of numerous letters on religious topics addressed to popes and patriarchs, as well as treatises and church hymns.

Here is what a contemporary of the emperor, Procopius of Caesarea, wrote about the attitude towards the church and the Christian faith: “In the Christian faith, he seemed to be firm, but this also turned into death for his subjects. Indeed, he allowed the priests to oppress their neighbors with impunity, and when they seized the lands adjacent to their possessions, he shared their joy, believing that in this way he showed his piety. And when judging such cases, he believed that he was doing a good deed if someone, hiding behind the shrines, retired, appropriating what did not belong to him. (Procopius of Caesarea "The Secret History" ch. XIII, part 4.5).

In accordance with his desire, Justinian considered it his right not only to resolve issues related to the leadership of the church and its property, but also to establish a certain dogma among his subjects. What religious direction the emperor adhered to, his subjects had to adhere to the same direction. Justinian regulated the life of the clergy, replaced the highest hierarchical positions at his own discretion, acted as an intermediary and judge in the clergy. He patronized the church in the person of its ministers, contributed to the construction of temples, monasteries, and the multiplication of their privileges; finally, the emperor established religious unity among all the subjects of the empire, gave the latter the norm of orthodox teaching, participated in dogmatic disputes and gave the final decision on controversial dogmatic issues.

Similar policy secular predominance in religious and ecclesiastical affairs, up to the recesses of a person’s religious convictions, especially vividly manifested by Justinian, received the name of Caesaropapism in history, and this emperor is considered one of the most typical representatives of this trend.

Steps were taken by Justinian to finally eradicate the remnants of paganism. In 529 he closed the famous philosophical school in Athens. This had a predominantly symbolic meaning, since by the time of the event this school had lost its leading position among educational institutions empire after the University of Constantinople was founded in the 5th century under Theodosius II. After the closure of the school under Justinian, the Athenian professors were expelled, some of them moved to Persia, where they met an admirer of Plato in the person of Khosrow I; school property was confiscated. John of Ephesus wrote: “In the same year in which St. Benedict destroyed the last pagan national sanctuary in Italy, namely the temple of Apollo in the sacred grove on Monte Cassino, and the stronghold of ancient paganism in Greece was also destroyed. Since then, Athens has completely lost its former importance as a cultural center and turned into a remote provincial city. Justinian did not achieve the complete eradication of paganism; it continued to hide in some inaccessible areas. Procopius of Caesarea writes that the persecution of the pagans was carried out not so much out of a desire to establish Christianity, but out of a thirst to seize the gold of pagan temples.

In The Divine Comedy, having placed Justinian in Paradise, trusts him to make a historical overview of the Roman Empire (Divine Comedy, Paradise, song 6). According to Dante, Justinian's main services to history were the reform of law, the renunciation of Monophysitism, and the campaigns of Belisarius.

Emperor Justinian. Mosaic in Ravenna. 6th century

The future emperor of Byzantium was born around 482 in the small Macedonian village of Taurisius in the family of a poor peasant. He came to Constantinople as a teenager at the invitation of his uncle Justin, an influential courtier. Justin did not have his own children, and he patronized his nephew: he summoned him to the capital and, despite the fact that he himself remained illiterate, gave him a good education, and then found a position at court. In 518. the Senate, the guards and the inhabitants of Constantinople proclaimed the aged Justin emperor, and he soon made his nephew co-ruler. Justinian was distinguished by a clear mind, a broad political outlook, determination, perseverance and exceptional efficiency. These qualities made him the de facto ruler of the empire. His young, beautiful wife Theodora also played a huge role. Her life was unusual: the daughter of a poor circus artist and a circus artist herself, she left for Alexandria as a 20-year-old girl, where she fell under the influence of mystics and monks and was transformed, becoming sincerely religious and pious. Beautiful and charming, Theodora had an iron will and proved to be an indispensable friend to the emperor in difficult times. Justinian and Theodora were a worthy couple, although their union haunted evil tongues for a long time.

In 527, after the death of his uncle, the 45-year-old Justinian became an autocrat - autocrat - of the Roman Empire, as the Byzantine Empire was then called.

He received power at a difficult time: only the eastern part of the former Roman possessions remained, and barbarian kingdoms were formed on the territory of the Western Roman Empire: the Visigoths in Spain, the Ostrogoths in Italy, the Franks in Gaul and the Vandals in Africa. The Christian church was torn by controversy as to whether Christ was a "god-man"; dependent peasants (columns) fled and did not cultivate the land, the arbitrariness of the nobility ruined the common people, the cities were shaken by riots, the finances of the empire were in decline. Only decisive and selfless measures could save the situation, and Justinian, a stranger to luxury and pleasure, a sincerely believing Orthodox Christian, theologian and politician, was the best suited for this role.

Several stages are clearly distinguished in the reign of Justinian I. The beginning of the reign (527-532) was a period of extensive charity, distribution of funds to the poor, tax cuts, and assistance to cities affected by the earthquake. At this time, the positions of the Christian Church in the fight against other religions were strengthened: in Athens, the last stronghold of paganism, the Platonic Academy, was closed; limited opportunities for open confession of cults of other believers - Jews, Samaritans, etc. This was a period of wars with the neighboring Iranian power of the Sassanids for influence in South Arabia, the purpose of which was to gain a foothold in the ports of the Indian Ocean and thereby undermine Iran's monopoly on the silk trade with China. It was a time of struggle against the arbitrariness and abuses of the nobility.

The main event of this stage is the reform of law. In 528, Justinian established a commission of experienced lawyers and statesmen. The main role in it was played by the specialist in law Trebonian. The commission prepared a collection of imperial decrees - "The Code of Justinian", a set of works of Roman lawyers - "Digesta", as well as a guide to the study of law - "Institutions". Carrying out legislative reform, proceeded from the need to combine the norms of classical Roman law with the spiritual values ​​of Christianity. This was expressed primarily in the creation of a unified system of imperial citizenship and the proclamation of the equality of citizens before the law. Moreover, under Justinian, the laws related to private property inherited from Ancient Rome took on their final form. In addition, the laws of Justinian considered the slave no longer as a thing - a "talking tool", but as a person. Although slavery was not abolished, many opportunities opened up for the slave to be freed: if he became a bishop, went to a monastery, became a soldier; it was forbidden to kill a slave, and the murder of another's slave entailed a cruel execution. In addition, under the new laws, the rights of women in the family were equalized with the rights of men. The laws of Justinian forbade the divorce condemned by the Church. At the same time, the epoch could not but leave an imprint on the law. Executions were frequent: for commoners - crucifixion, burning, giving to wild beasts to eat, beating with rods to death, quartering; nobles were beheaded. An insult to the emperor was also punishable by death, even damage to his sculptural images.

The emperor's reforms were interrupted by the Nika popular uprising in Constantinople (532). It all started with a conflict between two parties of fans in the circus: Veneti ("blue") and Prasin ("green"). These were not only sports, but partly socio-political unions. Political grievances were added to the traditional struggle of the fans: the Prasins believed that the government was oppressing them, and patronizing the Venets. In addition, the lower classes were dissatisfied with the abuses of the "Minister of Finance" of Justinian - John of Cappadocia, but the nobility hoped to get rid of the upstart emperor. The Prasin leaders presented their demands to the emperor, and in a very harsh manner, and when he rejected them, they called him a murderer and left the circus. Thus, an unheard-of insult was inflicted on the autocrat. The situation was complicated by the fact that when on the same day the instigators of the clash from both parties were arrested and sentenced to death, two of the condemned fell from the gallows (“were pardoned by God”), but the authorities refused to release them.

Then a single "green-blue" party was created with the slogan "Nika!" (circus cry "Win!"). An open riot began in the city, arson was committed. The emperor agreed to concessions, dismissing the ministers most hated by the people, but this did not bring peace. An important role was also played by the fact that the nobility distributed gifts and weapons to the rebellious plebs, inciting a rebellion. Neither attempts to suppress the uprising by force with the help of a detachment of barbarians, nor the public repentance of the emperor with the Gospel in his hands, yielded anything. The rebels now demanded his resignation and proclaimed the noble senator Hypatius emperor. In the meantime, the fires were getting bigger and bigger. "The city was a heap of blackening ruins," wrote a contemporary. Justinian was about to abdicate, but at that moment Empress Theodora declared that she preferred death to flight and that "the emperor's purple is an excellent shroud". Her determination played a big role, and Justinian decided to fight. The troops loyal to the government made a desperate attempt to regain control over the capital: a detachment of the commander Belisarius, the winner of the Persians, penetrated the circus, where there was a stormy rally of the rebels, and staged a brutal massacre there. It was said that 35 thousand people died, but the throne of Justinian survived.

The terrible catastrophe that befell Constantinople - fires and deaths - did not, however, plunge either Justinian or the townspeople into despondency. In the same year, rapid construction began at the expense of the treasury. The pathos of restoration captured wide sections of the townspeople. In a sense, we can say that the city has risen from the ashes, like a fabulous Phoenix bird, and has become even more beautiful. The symbol of this rise was, of course, the construction of a miracle of miracles - the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople. It began immediately, in 532, under the guidance of architects from the province - Anthemius from Thrall and Isidore from Miletus. Outwardly, the building could not impress the viewer with much, but the real miracle of transformation took place inside, when the believer found himself under a huge mosaic dome, which, as it were, hung in the air without any support. The dome with a cross hovered over the worshipers, symbolizing the divine cover over the empire and its capital. Justinian had no doubt that his authority had divine sanction. On holidays, he sat on the left side of the throne, and the right was empty - Christ was invisibly present on it. The autocrator dreamed that an invisible veil would be lifted up over the entire Roman Mediterranean. The idea of ​​restoring the Christian empire - the "Roman house" - Justinian inspired the whole society.

When the dome of Sophia of Constantinople was still being erected, the second stage of Justinian's reign (532-540) began with the Great Liberation Campaign to the West.

By the end of the first third of the VI century. the barbarian kingdoms that arose in the western part of the Roman Empire were in deep crisis. They were torn apart by religious strife: the main population professed Orthodoxy, but the barbarians, Goths and Vandals were Arians, whose teaching was declared a heresy, condemned in the 4th century. at the I and II Ecumenical Councils of the Christian Church. Within the barbarian tribes themselves, social stratification was rapidly going on, discord between the nobility and commoners intensified, which undermined the combat effectiveness of the armies. The elite of the kingdoms were busy with intrigues and conspiracies and did not care about the interests of their states. The indigenous population was waiting for the Byzantines as liberators. The reason for the start of the war in Africa was that the Vandal nobility overthrew the legitimate king - a friend of the empire - and put his relative Gelizmer on the throne. In 533, Justinian sent an army of 16,000 under the command of Belisarius to the African shores. The Byzantines managed to land covertly and freely occupy the capital of the Vandal kingdom of Carthage. The Orthodox clergy and the Roman nobility solemnly welcomed the imperial troops. The common people were also sympathetic to their appearance, since Belisarius severely punished robberies and looting. King Gelizmer tried to organize resistance, but lost the decisive battle. The Byzantines were helped by chance: at the beginning of the battle, the king's brother died, and Gelismer left the troops to bury him. The Vandals thought the king had fled, and panic seized the army. All Africa was in the hands of Belisarius. Under Justinian I, grandiose construction began here - 150 new cities were built, close trade contacts with the Eastern Mediterranean were restored. The province experienced economic growth throughout the 100 years that it was part of the empire.

Following the annexation of Africa, a war began for the possession of the historical core of the western part of the empire - Italy. The reason for the start of the war was the overthrow and murder of the legitimate queen of the Ostrogoths Amalasunta by her husband Theo-dat. In the summer of 535, Belisarius landed in Sicily with an eight thousandth detachment and short term, almost without resistance, occupied the island. The following year, his army crossed to the Apennine Peninsula and, despite the huge numerical superiority of the enemy, recaptured its southern and central parts. The Italians everywhere met Belisarius with flowers, only Naples resisted. The Christian Church played a huge role in this support of the people. In addition, confusion reigned in the camp of the Ostrogoths: the murder of the cowardly and treacherous Theodatus, a riot in the troops. The army chose Vitigis, a brave soldier but a weak politician, as the new king. He, too, could not stop the advance of Belisarius, and in December 536 the Byzantine army occupied Rome without a fight. The clergy and townspeople arranged a solemn meeting for the Byzantine soldiers. The population of Italy no longer wanted the power of the Ostrogoths, as evidenced by the following fact. When in the spring of 537 the 5,000-strong detachment of Belisarius was besieged in Rome by the huge army of Vitigis, the battle for Rome lasted 14 months; despite hunger and disease, the Romans remained loyal to the empire and did not let Vitigis into the city. It is also indicative that the king of the Ostrogoths himself printed coins with the portrait of Justinian I - only the power of the emperor was considered legitimate. In the deep autumn of 539, the army of Belisarius besieged the capital of the barbarians, Ravenna, and a few months later, relying on the support of friends, the imperial troops occupied it without a fight.

It seemed that the power of Justinian knew no bounds, he was at the height of his power, plans for the restoration of the Roman Empire were coming true. However, the main tests were still waiting for his power. The thirteenth year of the reign of Justinian I was a "black year" and began a period of difficulties that only the faith, courage and stamina of the Romans and their emperor could overcome. This was the third stage of his reign (540-558).

Even when Belisarius was negotiating the surrender of Ravenna, the Persians violated the "Perpetual Peace" signed by them ten years ago with the empire. Shah Khosrow I invaded Syria with a huge army and laid siege to the capital of the province - the richest city of Antioch. The inhabitants bravely defended themselves, but the garrison turned out to be unfit for combat and fled. The Persians took Antioch, plundered the flourishing city and sold the inhabitants into slavery. The following year, the troops of Khosrov I invaded Lazika (Western Georgia), allied with the empire, and a protracted Byzantine-Persian war began. Thunderstorm from the East coincided with the invasion of the Slavs on the Danube. Taking advantage of the fact that the fortifications of the border were left almost without garrisons (there were troops in Italy and in the East), the Slavs reached the capital itself, broke through the Long Walls (three walls stretching from the Black Sea to the Sea of ​​Marmara, protecting the outskirts of the city) and began to rob the suburbs of Constantinople. Belisarius was urgently transferred to the East, and he managed to stop the Persian invasion, but while his army was not in Italy, the Ostrogoths revived there. They chose the young, handsome, brave and intelligent Totila as king and, under his leadership, began a new war. The barbarians enrolled runaway slaves and columns in the army, distributed the lands of the Church and the nobility to their supporters, attracted those who were offended by the Byzantines. Very quickly Totila's small army occupied almost all of Italy; only ports remained under the control of the empire, which it was impossible to take without a fleet.

But, probably, the most difficult test for the power of Justinian I was the terrible plague epidemic (541-543), which claimed almost half of the population. It seemed that the invisible dome of Sophia over the empire cracked and black whirlwinds of death and destruction poured into it.

Justinian was well aware that his main strength in the face of a superior enemy was the faith and unity of his subjects. Therefore, simultaneously with the ongoing war with the Persians in Lazica, the difficult struggle with Totila, who created his own fleet and captured Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, the attention of the emperor was more and more occupied by questions of theology. It seemed to some that the aged Justinian had lost his mind, spending days and nights in such a critical situation reading the Holy Scriptures, studying the works of the Fathers of the Church (the traditional name for the leaders of the Christian Church who created its dogma and organization) and writing his own theological treatises. However, the emperor was well aware that it was in the Christian faith of the Romans that their strength was. Then the famous idea of ​​the "symphony of the Kingdom and the Priesthood" was formulated - the union of church and state as a guarantee of peace - the Empire.

In 543, Justinian wrote a treatise condemning the teachings of the mystic, ascetic, and theologian of the third century. Origen, who denies the eternal torment of sinners. However, the emperor paid the main attention to overcoming the split between the Orthodox and the Monophysites. This conflict has tormented the Church for more than 100 years. In 451 the IV Ecumenical Council at Chalcedon condemned the Monophysites. The theological dispute was complicated by the rivalry between the influential centers of Orthodoxy in the East - Alexandria, Antioch and Constantinople. The split between the supporters of the Council of Chalcedon and its opponents (Orthodox and Monophysites) in the reign of Justinian I became especially acute, since the Monophysites created their own separate church hierarchy. In 541, the activity of the famous Monophysite Jacob Baradei begins, who, in the clothes of a beggar, went around all the countries inhabited by Monophysites, and restored the Monophysite church in the East. The religious conflict was complicated by the national one: the Greeks and Romans, who considered themselves the ruling people in the empire of the Romans, were predominantly Orthodox, and the Copts and many Arabs were Monophysites. For the empire, this was all the more dangerous because the richest provinces - Egypt and Syria - gave huge sums to the treasury, and much depended on the support of the government by trade and craft circles in these areas. While Theodora was alive, she helped mitigate the conflict by patronizing the Monophysites, despite the complaints of the Orthodox clergy, but in 548 the empress died. Justinian decided to bring the issue of reconciliation with the Monophysites to the Fifth Ecumenical Council. The emperor's intention was to smooth out the conflict by condemning the teachings of the enemies of the Monophysites - Theodoret of Cyrus, Willow of Edessa and Theodore of Mopsuet (the so-called "three chapters"). The difficulty was that they all died in peace with the Church. Is it possible to condemn the dead? After much hesitation, Justinian decided that it was possible, but Pope Vigilius and the vast majority of Western bishops disagreed with his decision. The emperor took the Pope to Constantinople, kept him almost under house arrest, trying to achieve consent under pressure. After a long struggle and hesitation, Vigilius gave in. In 553, the 5th Ecumenical Council in Constantinople condemned the "three chapters". The pope did not participate in the work of the council, citing malaise, and tried to oppose its decisions, but in the end he nevertheless signed them.

In the history of this cathedral, one should distinguish between its religious meaning, which consists in the triumph of the Orthodox dogma that the divine and human nature united in Christ, unmerged and indivisible, and the political intrigues that accompanied him. The direct goal of Justinian was not achieved: reconciliation with the Monophysites did not come, and there was almost a break with the Western bishops, who were dissatisfied with the decisions of the council. However, this cathedral played a big role in the spiritual consolidation Orthodox Church, and this was extremely important both at that time and for subsequent eras. The reign of Justinian I was a period of religious upsurge. It was at this time that church poetry developed, written plain language, one of the most prominent representatives of which was Roman Sladkopevets. This was the heyday of Palestinian monasticism, the time of John of the Ladder and Isaac the Syrian.

There was also a turning point in political affairs. In 552, Justinian equipped a new army for a campaign in Italy. This time she took the land route through Dalmatia under the command of the eunuch Narses, a brave commander and cunning politician. In the decisive battle, Totila's cavalry attacked the troops of Narses, built in a crescent, came under cross fire from archers from the flanks, fled and crushed their own infantry. Totila was severely wounded and died. Within a year, the Byzantine army restored its dominance over all of Italy, and a year later Narses stopped and destroyed the hordes of the Lombards that poured into the peninsula.

Italy was saved from a terrible plunder. In 554, Justinian continued his conquests in the Western Mediterranean, trying to capture Spain. It was not possible to do this completely, but a small area in the southeast of the country and the Strait of Gibraltar came under the rule of Byzantium. The Mediterranean Sea has once again become the "Lake of Rome". In 555. Imperial troops defeated a huge Persian army in Lazik. Khosrow I first signed a truce for six years, and then peace. The Slavic threat was also managed to be dealt with: Justinian I concluded an alliance with the nomadic Avars, who took upon themselves the protection of the Danube border of the empire and the fight against the Slavs. In 558 this treaty came into force. For the empire of the Romans, the long-awaited peace came.

The last years of the reign of Justinian I (559-565) passed quietly. The finances of the empire, weakened by a quarter of a century of struggle and a terrible epidemic, were being restored, the country was healing its wounds. The 84-year-old emperor did not leave his theological studies and hopes to end the schism in the Church. He even wrote a treatise close in spirit to the Monophysites on the incorruptibility of the body of Christ. For resistance to the new views of the emperor, the Patriarch of Constantinople and many bishops ended up in exile. Justinian I was at the same time the successor of the traditions of the early Christians and the heir of the pagan Caesars. On the one hand, he fought against the fact that only priests were active in the Church, and the laity remained only spectators, on the other hand, he constantly interfered in church affairs, removing bishops at his own discretion. Justinian carried out reforms in the spirit of the gospel commandments - he helped the poor, eased the situation of slaves and columns, restored cities - and at the same time subjected the population to severe tax oppression. Tried to restore the authority of the law, but could not destroy the venality and abuse of officials. His attempts to restore peace and stability in the territory of the Byzantine Empire turned into rivers of blood. And yet, in spite of everything, the empire of Justinian was an oasis of civilization surrounded by pagan and barbarian states and struck the imagination of his contemporaries.

The significance of the deeds of the great emperor goes far beyond the scope of his time. Strengthening the position of the Church, the ideological and spiritual consolidation of Orthodoxy played a huge role in the formation of medieval society. The Code of Emperor Justinian I became the basis of European law in subsequent centuries.

Justinian I the Great, whose full name sounds like Justinian Flavius ​​Peter Sabbatius, is the Byzantine emperor (i.e. the ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire), one of the largest emperors of late antiquity, under which this era began to be replaced by the Middle Ages, and the Roman style of government gave way to the Byzantine . He went down in history as a major reformer.

Born around 483, was a native of Macedonia, a peasant son. A decisive role in the biography of Justinian was played by his uncle, who became Emperor Justin I. The childless monarch, who loved his nephew, brought him closer to him, contributed to education, promotion in society. Researchers suggest that Justinian could have arrived in Rome at about the age of 25, studied law and theology in the capital, and began his ascent to the top of the political Olympus with the rank of personal imperial bodyguard, head of the guard corps.

In 521, Justinian rose to the rank of consul and became a very popular person, not least due to the organization of luxurious circus performances. The Senate repeatedly offered Justin to make his nephew co-ruler, but the emperor took this step only in April 527, when his health deteriorated significantly. On August 1 of the same year, after the death of his uncle, Justinian became the sovereign ruler.

The newly-made emperor, nourishing ambitious plans, immediately set about strengthening the power of the country. In domestic policy, this was manifested, in particular, in the implementation of legal reform. The published 12 books of the Justinian Code and 50 of the Digest have remained relevant for more than a millennium. The laws of Justinian contributed to centralization, the expansion of the powers of the monarch, the strengthening of the state apparatus and the army, and the strengthening of control in certain areas, in particular, in trade.

The coming to power was marked by the onset of a period of large-scale construction. The Constantinopolitan Church of St. Sophia was rebuilt in such a way that it had no equal among Christian churches for many centuries.

Justinian I the Great carried out a fairly aggressive foreign policy aimed at conquering new territories. His commanders (the emperor himself was not in the habit of personally participating in hostilities) managed to conquer part of North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, a significant part of the territory of the Western Roman Empire.

The reign of this emperor was marked by a number of riots, incl. largest in Byzantine history Nika uprising: this is how the population reacted to the harshness of the measures taken. In 529 Justinian closed Plato's Academy, in 542 the consular post was abolished. He was given more and more honors, likened to a saint. Justinian himself towards the end life path gradually lost interest in state concerns, preferring theology, dialogues with philosophers and clergy. He died in Constantinople in the autumn of 565.

In 518, after the death of Anastasius, a rather obscure intrigue placed the head of the guard, Justin, on the throne. He was a peasant from Macedonia, who had come to Constantinople in search of fortune fifty years ago, brave, but completely illiterate and having no experience in state affairs as a soldier. That is why this upstart, who became the founder of the dynasty at the age of about 70, would have been very hampered by the power entrusted to him if he had not had an adviser in the person of his nephew Justinian.

A native of Macedonia, like Justin - the romantic tradition that makes him a Slav originated at a much later time and has no historical value - Justinian, at the invitation of his uncle, came to Constantinople as a young man, where he received a complete Roman and Christian education. He had experience in business, had a mature mind, an established character - everything necessary to become an assistant to the new lord. Indeed, from 518 to 527 he actually ruled in the name of Justin, in anticipation of an independent reign, which lasted from 527 to 565.

Thus, Justinian for almost half a century controlled the fate of the Eastern Roman Empire; he left a deep mark on the era dominated by his majestic appearance, for his will alone was enough to stop the natural evolution that carried the empire to the East.

Under his influence, from the very beginning of Justin's reign, a new political orientation was determined. The first concern of the government of Constantinople was to reconcile with Rome and put an end to the schism; in order to seal the alliance and give the pope a pledge of his zeal in orthodoxy, Justinian for three years (518-521) fiercely persecuted the Monophysites throughout the East. This rapprochement with Rome strengthened the new dynasty. In addition, Justinian very far-sightedly managed to accept necessary measures to ensure the strength of the regime. He freed himself from Vitalian, his most feared adversary; he gained special popularity thanks to his generosity and love of luxury. From now on, Justinian began to dream of more: he perfectly understood the significance that an alliance with the papacy could have for his future ambitious plans; that is why, when in 525 Pope John, the first of the Roman high priests to visit the new Rome, appeared in Constantinople, he was given a solemn reception in the capital; Justinian felt how much the West liked this behavior, how inevitably it led to a comparison of the pious emperors who ruled in Constantinople with the Arian barbarian kings who dominated Africa and Italy. So Justinian cherished great plans when, after the death of Justin, which followed in 527, he became the sole ruler of Byzantium.

II

CHARACTER, POLITICS AND ENVIRONMENT OF JUSTINIAN

Justinian is not at all like his predecessors, the sovereigns of the fifth century. This upstart, seated on the throne of the Caesars, desired to be a Roman emperor, and indeed he was the last great emperor of Rome. However, despite his undeniable diligence and diligence - one of the courtiers spoke of him: "the emperor who never sleeps" - despite his genuine concern for order and sincere concern for good administration, Justinian, due to his suspicious and jealous despotism, naive ambition, restless activity, combined with an unsteady and weak will, might seem on the whole to be a very mediocre and unbalanced ruler, if he did not have a great mind. This Macedonian peasant was a noble representative of two great ideas: the idea of ​​empire and the idea of ​​Christianity; and because he had these two ideas, his name remains immortal in history.

Filled with memories of the greatness of Rome, Justinian dreamed of restoring the Roman Empire to what it had once been, strengthening the unshakable rights that Byzantium, the successor of Rome, had over the western barbarian kingdoms, and restoring the unity of the Roman world. Heir to the Caesars, he wanted, like them, to be a living law, the most complete embodiment of absolute power, and at the same time an infallible legislator and reformer, who cares about order in the empire. Finally, being proud of his imperial dignity, he wanted to adorn it with all the pomp, all the splendor; by the brilliance of his buildings, the splendor of his court, in a somewhat childish way to call by his name (“Justinian”) the fortresses he built, the cities he restored, the magistracies he established; he wanted to perpetuate the glory of his reign and make his subjects, as he said, feel the incomparable happiness of being born in his time. He dreamed of more. The chosen one of God, the representative and vicar of God on earth, he undertook the task of being a champion of Orthodoxy, whether in the wars he undertakes, the religious nature of which is undeniable, whether in the enormous effort that he made to spread Orthodoxy throughout the world, whether in the way in which he ruled the church and destroyed heresies. He devoted his whole life to the realization of this magnificent and proud dream, and he was fortunate to find intelligent ministers, such as the legal adviser Tribonian and the prefect of the Praetorium, John of Cappadocia, courageous generals, like Belisarius and Narses, and especially, an excellent adviser in the person of "the most revered, God-given wife ”, the one whom he liked to call “his most tender charm”, in the Empress Theodora.

Theodora also came from the people. The daughter of a bear watchman from the hippodrome, she, according to the gossip of Procopius in The Secret History, infuriated her contemporaries with her life as a fashionable actress, the noise of her adventures, and most of all by the fact that she won the heart of Justinian, forced him to marry herself and with him took the throne.

There is no doubt that while she was alive - Theodora died in 548 - she exerted a huge influence on the emperor and ruled the empire to the same extent as he did, and perhaps even more. This happened because despite her shortcomings - she loved money, power and, in order to save the throne, often acted insidiously, cruelly and was adamant in her hatred - this ambitious woman had excellent qualities - energy, firmness, decisive and strong will, careful and clear political mind and, perhaps, saw much more correctly than her royal husband. While Justinian dreamed of reconquering the West and restoring the Roman Empire in alliance with the papacy, she, a native of the East, turned her eyes to the East with a more accurate understanding of the situation and needs of the time. She wanted to put an end to the religious quarrels there, which harmed the tranquility and power of the empire, to return the fallen peoples of Syria and Egypt through various concessions and a policy of broad religious tolerance, and, at least at the cost of a break with Rome, to recreate the lasting unity of the Eastern monarchy. And one may ask oneself whether the empire of which she dreamed would not have resisted the onslaught of the Persians and Arabs better - more compact, more homogeneous and more powerful? Be that as it may, Theodora made her hand felt everywhere - in administration, in diplomacy, in religious politics; still today in the church of St. Vitalius in Ravenna, among the mosaics that adorn the apse, her image in all the splendor of royal grandeur flaunts as equal against the image of Justinian.

III

FOREIGN POLICY OF JUSTINIAN

At the moment when Justinian came to power, the empire had not yet recovered from the serious crisis that had gripped it since the end of the 5th century. In the last months of Justin's reign, the Persians, dissatisfied with the penetration of imperial policy into the Caucasus, into Armenia, onto the borders of Syria, again started the war, and the best part of the Byzantine army was chained in the East. Inside the state, the struggle between the Greens and the Blues maintained an extremely dangerous political excitement, which was further exacerbated by the deplorable venality of the administration, which caused general discontent. Justinian's urgent concern was to remove these difficulties, which delayed the fulfillment of his ambitious dreams in relation to the West. Not seeing or not wanting to see the extent of the eastern danger, at the cost of significant concessions, in 532 he signed a peace with the "great king", which gave him the opportunity to freely dispose of his military forces. On the other hand, he mercilessly suppressed internal turmoil. But in January 532, a formidable uprising, which retained the name “Nika” at the call of the rebels, filled Constantinople with fires and blood for a week. During this rebellion, when it seemed that the throne was about to collapse, Justinian found himself owing his salvation mainly to the courage of Theodora and the energy of Belisarius. But in any case, the brutal suppression of the uprising, which littered the hippodrome with thirty thousand corpses, resulted in the establishment of a lasting order in the capital and the transformation of imperial power into more absolute than ever.

In 532, Justinian's hands were untied.

Restoration of the empire in the West. The situation in the West favored his projects. Both in Africa and in Italy, the inhabitants, under the rule of heretic barbarians, had long called for the restoration of imperial power; the prestige of the empire was still so great that even the Vandals and Ostrogoths recognized the legitimacy of Byzantine claims. That is why the rapid decline of these barbarian kingdoms made them powerless against the advance of the armies of Justinian, and their differences did not give them the opportunity to unite against a common enemy. When, in 531, the seizure of power by Gelimer gave Byzantine diplomacy a pretext to intervene in African affairs, Justinian, relying on the formidable strength of his army, did not hesitate, striving to free the African Orthodox population from the “Arian captivity” with one blow and force the Vandal kingdom to enter the bosom of imperial unity. In 533 Belisarius sailed from Constantinople with an army of 10,000 infantry and 5,000-6,000 cavalry; the campaign was swift and brilliant. Gelimer, defeated at Decimus and Trikamar, surrounded during the retreat on Mount Pappua, was forced to surrender (534). Within a few months, several regiments of cavalry - for it was they who played the decisive role - destroyed the kingdom of Genseric against all expectations. The victorious Belisarius was given triumphal honors in Constantinople. And although it took another fifteen years (534-548) to put down the Berber uprisings and the revolts of the empire's dissolute mercenaries, Justinian could still take pride in conquering most of Africa and arrogantly assume the title of Emperor of Vandal and Africa.

The Ostrogoths of Italy did not budge when they defeated the Vandal kingdom. Soon it was their turn. The murder of Amalasunta, the daughter of the great Theoderic, by her husband Theodagatus (534) gave Justinian a pretext for intervention; this time, however, the war was more difficult and prolonged; despite the success of Belisarius, who conquered Sicily (535), captured Naples, then Rome, where he1 for a whole year (March 537-March 538) besieged the new Ostrogoth king Vitiges, and then took possession of Ravenna (540) and brought the captive Vitiges to the feet emperor, the Goths recovered again under the leadership of the dexterous and energetic Totilla, Belisarius, sent with insufficient forces to Italy, was defeated (544-548); it took the energy of Narses to crush the resistance of the Ostrogoths at Tagina (552), crush the last remnants of the barbarians in Campania (553) and free the peninsula from the Frankish hordes of Levtaris and Butilin (554). It took twenty years to reconquer Italy. Once again, Justinian, with his characteristic optimism, believed too soon in the final victory, and perhaps that is why he did not make the necessary effort in time to break the strength of the Ostrogoths with one blow. After all, the subjugation of Italy to imperial influence was begun with a completely insufficient army - with twenty-five or barely thirty thousand soldiers. As a result, the war dragged on hopelessly.

Similarly, in Spain, Justinian took advantage of circumstances to intervene in the dynastic feuds of the Visigothic kingdom (554) and win back the southeast of the country.

As a result of these happy campaigns, Justinian could flatter himself that he had succeeded in realizing his dream. Thanks to his stubborn ambition, Dalmatia, Italy, all of East Africa, southern Spain, the islands of the western Mediterranean basin - Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, the Balearic Islands - again became parts of a single Roman Empire; the territory of the monarchy almost doubled. As a result of the capture of Ceuta, the power of the emperor extended as far as the Pillars of Hercules, and, if we exclude the part of the coast preserved by the Visigoths in Spain and Septimania and the Franks in Provence, it can be said that the Mediterranean Sea became a Roman lake again. No doubt neither Africa nor Italy entered the empire in its former extent; besides, they were already exhausted and devastated by long years of war. Nevertheless, as a result of these victories, the influence and glory of the empire increased undeniably, and Justinian used every opportunity to consolidate his successes. Africa and Italy formed, as before, two prefectures of the praetorium, and the emperor tried to restore to the population its former idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe empire. Restorative measures partially smoothed over the military devastation. The organization of defense - the creation of large military teams, the formation of border marks (limites), occupied by special border troops (limitanei), the construction of a powerful network of fortresses - all this guaranteed the security of the country. Justinian could be proud of the fact that he had restored in the West that perfect peace, that "perfect order", which seemed to him the sign of a truly civilized state.

Wars in the East. Unfortunately, these large enterprises exhausted the empire and made it neglect the East. The East avenged itself in the most terrible way.

The first Persian war (527-532) was only a harbinger of the impending danger. Since none of the opponents went too far, the outcome of the struggle remained undecided; Belisarius' victory at Darus (530) was offset by his defeat at Callinicus (531), and both sides were forced to conclude an unstable peace (532). But the new Persian king Khosroy Anushirvan (531-579), active and ambitious, was not one of those who could be satisfied with such results. Seeing that Byzantium was occupied in the West, especially concerned about the projects of world domination, which Justinian did not hide, he rushed to Syria in 540 and took Antioch; in 541, he invaded the country of the Lazes and captured Petra; in 542 he destroyed Commagene; in 543 defeated the Greeks in Armenia; in 544 devastated Mesopotamia. Belisarius himself was unable to overcome him. It was necessary to conclude a truce (545), which was renewed many times, and in 562 to sign a peace for fifty years, according to which Justinian undertook to pay tribute to the "great king" and abandoned any attempt to preach Christianity in Persian territory; but although at this price he preserved the country of the Lazes, ancient Colchis, the Persian threat, after this long and devastating war, did not become less frightening for the future.

At the same time in Europe the frontier on the Danube was succumbing to the pressure of the barbarians. In 540, the Huns put Thrace, Illyria, Greece to the Isthmus of Corinth and reached the approaches to Constantinople; in 547 and in 551. the Slavs devastated Illyria, and in 552 threatened Thessalonica; in 559 the Huns reappeared before the capital, saved with great difficulty thanks to the courage of old Belisarius.

In addition, Avars appear on the stage. Of course, none of these invasions established a lasting dominance of foreigners in the empire. But still the Balkan Peninsula was severely devastated. The empire paid dearly in the east for Justinian's triumphs in the west.

Defense measures and diplomacy. Nevertheless, Justinian sought to ensure the protection and security of the territory both in the west and in the east. By organizing large military commands entrusted to the masters of the army (magist ri militum), by creating military lines (limites) on all frontiers occupied by special troops (l imitanei), he restored in the face of the barbarians what was once called the "cover of the empire" (praetentura imperii) . But chiefly he erected on all frontiers a long line of fortresses, which occupied all important strategic points and formed several successive barriers against invasion; the whole territory behind them, for greater security, was covered with fortified castles. To this day, in many places, one can see the majestic ruins of the towers that towered by the hundreds in all the imperial provinces; they serve as magnificent evidence of that tremendous effort, thanks to which, according to the expression of Procopius, Justinian truly "saved the empire."

Finally, Byzantine diplomacy, in addition to military action, sought to secure the empire's prestige and influence throughout the outside world. Thanks to the clever distribution of favors and money, and the skillful ability to sow discord among the enemies of the empire, she brought under Byzantine rule the barbarian peoples who wandered on the borders of the monarchy, and made them safe. She included them in the sphere of influence of Byzantium by preaching Christianity. The activities of missionaries who spread Christianity from the shores of the Black Sea to the plateaus of Abyssinia and the oases of the Sahara were one of the most characteristic features of Byzantine politics in the Middle Ages.

Thus the empire created for itself a clientele of vassals; among them were the Arabs from Syria and Yemen, the Berbers from North Africa, the Lazians and Tsans on the borders of Armenia, the Heruli, the Gepids, the Lombards, the Huns on the Danube, up to the Frankish sovereigns of remote Gaul, in whose churches they prayed for the Roman emperor. Constantinople, where Justinian solemnly received the barbarian sovereigns, seemed to be the capital of the world. And although the aged emperor did, in the last years of his reign, allow the decline of the military establishments and too much carried away by the practice of ruinous diplomacy, which, by distributing money to the barbarians, aroused their dangerous desires, nevertheless it is certain that while the empire was strong enough to defend itself, its diplomacy , acting with the support of weapons, seemed to contemporaries a miracle of prudence, subtlety and insight; despite the heavy sacrifices that Justinian’s great ambition cost the empire, even his detractors recognized that “the natural desire of an emperor with a great soul is the desire to expand the empire and make it more glorious” (Procopius).

IV

INTERNAL RULE OF JUSTINIAN

The internal management of the empire gave Justinian no less concern than the defense of the territory. His attention was occupied by urgent administrative reform. A formidable religious crisis insistently demanded his intervention.

Legislative and administrative reform. Troubles did not stop in the empire. The administration was corrupt and corrupt; disorder and poverty reigned in the provinces; legal proceedings, due to the indeterminacy of laws, were arbitrary and biased. One of the most serious consequences of this state of affairs was the very faulty receipt of taxes. Justinian had too developed a love of order, a desire for administrative centralization, as well as a concern for the public good, for him to tolerate such a state of affairs. In addition, for his great undertakings, he constantly needed money.

So he undertook a double reform. In order to give the empire "firm and unshakable laws", he entrusted his minister Tribonian with a great legislative work. The commission, convened in 528 to carry out the reform of the code, collected and classified into a single code the main imperial decrees promulgated since the era of Hadrian. This was the codex of Justinian, published in 529 and republished in 534. It was followed by the Digests or Pandects, in which a new commission, appointed in 530, collected and classified the most important extracts from the works of the great jurists of the second and third centuries, - a huge work completed in 533, Institutions - a manual intended for students - summarized the principles of the new law. Finally, a collection of new edicts published by Justinian between 534 and 565 completed the imposing monument known as the Corpus juris civilis.

Justinian was so proud of this great legislative work that he forbade it to be touched in the future and changed by any commentary, and in the schools of law reorganized in Constantinople, Beirut and Rome, he made it an unshakable foundation for legal education. And indeed, despite some shortcomings, despite the haste in work that caused repetitions and contradictions, despite the pitiful appearance of passages from the most beautiful monuments of Roman law placed in the codex, it was a truly great work, one of the most fruitful for the progress of mankind. If Justinian law gave the justification for the absolute power of the emperor, it also later preserved and recreated in the medieval world the idea of ​​the state and social organization. In addition, it injected a new spirit of Christianity into the austere old Roman law, and thus introduced into the law a hitherto unknown concern for social justice, morality, and humanity.

In order to reform the administration and the court, Justinian promulgated in 535 two important decrees establishing new duties for all officials and prescribing to them, above all, scrupulous honesty in the management of subjects. At the same time, the emperor abolished the sale of posts, increased salaries, destroyed useless institutions, united in a number of provinces in order to better ensure order, civil and military power there. This was the beginning of a reform that was to become significant in its consequences for the administrative history of the empire. He reorganized the judicial administration and the police in the capital; throughout the empire, he carried out extensive public works, forced the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, baths, theaters, churches, and with unheard-of luxury rebuilt Constantinople, partially destroyed by the uprising of 532. Finally, through a skillful economic policy, Justinian achieved the development of rich industry and trade in the empire and, according to his habit, boasted that "with his magnificent undertakings, he gave the state a new flowering." However, in reality, despite the emperor's good intentions, the administrative reform failed. The enormous burden of spending, and the consequent constant need for money, established a cruel fiscal tyranny that exhausted the empire and reduced it to poverty. Of all the great transformations, only one succeeded: in 541, for reasons of economy, the consulate was abolished.

Religious policy. Like all the emperors who succeeded Constantine to the throne, Justinian was involved in the church as much because the interests of the state demanded it, as from a personal penchant for theological disputes. To better emphasize his pious zeal, he severely persecuted heretics, in 529 ordered the closure of the University of Athens, where there were still a few pagan teachers secretly, and fiercely persecuted schismatics. In addition, he knew how to manage the church like a master, and in exchange for the patronage and favors with which he showered her, he arbitrarily and rudely prescribed his will to her, frankly calling himself "emperor and priest." Nevertheless, he repeatedly found himself in difficulty, not knowing what line of conduct he should take. For the success of his western enterprises it was necessary for him to maintain the established agreement with the papacy; in order to restore political and moral unity in the East, it was necessary to spare the Monophysites, who were very numerous and influential in Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Armenia. Often the emperor did not know what to decide on in the face of Rome, which demanded the condemnation of dissidents, and Theodora, who advised to return to the policy of unity of Zinon and Anastasius, and his wavering will tried, despite all the contradictions, to find ground for mutual understanding and find a means for reconciling these contradictions. Gradually, to please Rome, he allowed the Council of Constantinople in 536 to anathematize dissidents, began to persecute them (537-538), attacked their citadel - Egypt, and, in order to please Theodora, gave the Monophysites the opportunity to restore their church (543) and tried on Constantinople council of 553 to obtain from the pope an indirect condemnation of the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon. For more than twenty years (543-565) the so-called "three-headed affair" agitated the empire and gave rise to western church schism without establishing peace in the East. The fury and arbitrariness of Justinian, directed at his opponents (his most famous victim was Pope Vigilius), did not bring any useful result. The policy of unity and religious tolerance that Theodora advised was, no doubt, cautious and reasonable; Justinian's indecisiveness, vacillating between the disputing sides, led, despite his good intentions, only to the growth of the separatist tendencies of Egypt and Syria and to the aggravation of their national hatred of the empire.

V

BYZANTINE CULTURE IN THE VI CENTURY

In the history of Byzantine art, the reign of Justinian marks an entire era. Talented writers, such historians as Procopius and Agathius, John of Ephesus or Evagrius, such poets as Paul the Silentiary, such theologians as Leontius of Byzantium, brilliantly continued the traditions of classical Greek literature, and it was at the dawn of the 6th century. Roman the Melodist, "the king of melodies", created religious poetry - perhaps the most beautiful and most original manifestation of the Byzantine spirit. Even more remarkable was the magnificence of the visual arts. At this time, in Constantinople, a slow process, prepared for two centuries in the local schools of the East, was being completed. And since Justinian loved buildings, because he managed to find outstanding masters to carry out his intentions and provide inexhaustible means at their disposal, as a result, the monuments of this century - miracles of knowledge, courage and magnificence - marked the pinnacle of Byzantine art in perfect creations.

Art has never been more varied, more mature, more free; in the VI century meet all architectural styles, all types of buildings - basilicas, such as St. Apollinaria in Ravenna or St. Demetrius of Thessaloniki; churches representing polygons in plan, for example, the churches of St. Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople or St. Vitaly in Ravenna; buildings in the shape of a cross, crowned with five domes, like the church of St. Apostles; churches, such as St. Sophia, built by Anthimius of Trall and Isidore of Miletus in 532-537; thanks to its original plan, light, bold and precisely calculated structure, skillful solution of problems of balance, harmonious combination of parts, this temple remains an unsurpassed masterpiece of Byzantine art to this day. Skillful selection of multi-colored marble, fine molding of sculptures, mosaic decoration against a blue and gold background inside the temple, they are an incomparable splendor, an idea of ​​​​which can still be obtained today, in the absence of a mosaic destroyed in the church of St. Apostles or barely visible under the Turkish painting of St. Sophia, - according to the mosaics in the churches of Parenzo and Ravenna, as well as the remains of the wonderful decorations of the church of St. Demetrius of Thessaloniki. Everywhere - in jewelry, in fabrics, in ivory, in manuscripts - the same character of dazzling luxury and solemn grandeur that marks the birth of a new style is manifested. Under the combined influence of the East and ancient tradition, Byzantine art entered its golden age in the era of Justinian.

VI

DESTRUCTION OF JUSTINIAN'S CASE (565 - 610)

If we consider the reign of Justinian as a whole, one cannot but admit that he managed to restore the empire to its former greatness for a short time. Nevertheless, the question arises whether this greatness was not more apparent than real, and whether, on the whole, more evil than good, these great conquests, which stopped the natural development of the eastern empire and exhausted it for the sake of the extreme ambition of one person. In all the undertakings of Justinian, there was a constant discrepancy between the end pursued and the means for its implementation; the lack of money was a constant pest that corroded the most brilliant projects and the most laudable intentions! Therefore, it was necessary to increase the fiscal oppression to the extreme limit, and since in the last years of his reign, the aged Justinian more and more left the course of affairs to the mercy of fate, the position of the Byzantine Empire when he died - in 565, at the age of 87 years - it was absolutely deplorable. Financially and militarily, the empire was depleted; a formidable danger was approaching from all frontiers; in the empire itself, state power weakened - in the provinces due to the development of large feudal property, in the capital as a result of the incessant struggle of the greens and blues; deep poverty reigned everywhere, and contemporaries asked themselves in bewilderment: “Where did the wealth of the Romans disappear?” Policy change became an urgent need; it was a difficult undertaking, fraught with many disasters. It fell to the lot of Justinian's successors - his nephew Justin II (565-578), Tiberius (578-582) and Mauritius (582-602).

They decisively laid the foundation for a new policy. Turning their backs on the West, where, moreover, the invasion of the Lombards (568) took away half of Italy from the empire, Justinian's successors limited themselves to organizing a solid defense by founding the Exarchates of Africa and Ravenna. At this price, they again got the opportunity to take up position in the East and take a more independent position in relation to the enemies of the empire. Thanks to the measures taken by them to reorganize the army, the Persian war, resumed in 572 and lasted until 591, ended in a favorable peace, according to which Persian Armenia was ceded to Byzantium.

And in Europe, despite the fact that the Avars and Slavs brutally devastated the Balkan Peninsula, capturing fortresses on the Danube, besieging Thessalonica, threatening Constantinople (591) and even starting to settle on the peninsula for a long time, nevertheless, as a result of a series of brilliant successes, the war was postponed to that side of the borders, and the Byzantine armies reached up to Tisza (601).

But the internal crisis ruined everything. Justinian pursued a policy of absolute rule too firmly; when he died, the aristocracy raised its head, the separatist tendencies of the provinces began to reappear, the parties of the circus became agitated. And since the government was unable to restore financial position, discontent was growing, which was facilitated by administrative devastation and military mutinies. Religious politics further exacerbated the general confusion. After a short-term attempt to exercise religious tolerance, the fierce persecution of heretics began again; and although Mauritius put an end to these persecutions, the conflict that broke out between the Patriarch of Constantinople, who claimed the title of ecumenical patriarch, and Pope Gregory the Great, intensified the ancient hatred between West and East. Despite its undoubted merits, Mauritius was extremely unpopular. The weakening of political authority facilitated the success of the military coup that brought Foca to the throne (602).

The new sovereign, a rude soldier, could only hold on to terror (602 - 610); with this he ended the ruin of the monarchy. Chosroes II, assuming the role of avenger for Mauritius, resumed the war; Persians conquered Mesopotamia, Syria, Asia Minor. In 608 they ended up in Chalcedon, at the gates of Constantinople. Inside the country, uprisings, conspiracies, rebellions succeeded each other; the whole empire called for a savior. He came from Africa. In 610, Heraclius, the son of the Carthaginian exarch, deposed Phocas and founded a new dynasty. After almost half a century of unrest, Byzantium regained a leader capable of directing its fate. But during this half-century, Byzantium nevertheless gradually returned to the East. The transformation in the Eastern spirit, interrupted by the long reign of Justinian, was now to be accelerated and completed.

It was during the reign of Justinian that two monks brought from China around 557 the secret of breeding silkworms, which allowed the industry of Syria to produce silk, partially freeing Byzantium from foreign imports.

This name is due to the fact that the dispute was based on extracts from the works of three theologians - Theodore of Mopsuestsky, Theodoret of Cyrus and Willow of Edessa, whose teaching was approved by the Council of Chalcedon, and Justinian, to please the Monophysites, forced to condemn.

During the reign of Justinian I (527 - 565) Byzantine Empire reached the pinnacle of power. This emperor tried to restore the Roman Empire to its former borders.

By order of Emperor Justinian I, in 528 - 534, a collection of laws "Code of Civil Law" was concluded, where ancient Roman legal norms and the spiritual values ​​of Christianity were combined. "Code ..." proclaimed the equality of all citizens before the law. Although slavery was not abolished, it was forbidden to kill slaves and they got the opportunity to free themselves. The laws of Justinian equalized the rights of man and woman, forbade divorce, which was condemned by the Christian church. The "Code" proclaimed the idea of ​​unlimited and absolute power of the emperor: "the will of the emperor is the source of laws". The right to inviolability of private property was enshrined. "Code ..." became a model for the development of laws in most countries of Western Europe in the XII - XIV centuries. Kazhdan A.P., Litavrin G.G. Essays on the history of Byzantium and the southern Slavs. SPb., "Aleteyya", 1998 p. 58

The reforms initiated by Justinian required significant funds. Rising taxes, abuses and bribery of imperial officials caused an uprising in 532 in Constantinople. The uprising was called "Nika" for the slogan of the rebels (Nika! - "Win!") The rebels dominated the city for eight days. Justinian even decided to run away, but on the advice of Theodora, he remained, declaring that he would rather die than lose power. The emperor bribed the leaders of the uprising, and with the help of detachments of barbarian mercenaries, he crushed the uprising, killing about 35 thousand people.

Having suppressed the uprising, Justinian set about realizing the main goal of his life - the restoration of the Roman Empire within its former borders. It contributed to the realization of his plans that the barbarian kingdoms in the West were experiencing a deep crisis at that time.

In 534, the Byzantine army, led by the outstanding commander Belisarius, defeated the Vandals and captured North Africa. Further, the army of Belisarius, Capturing Fr. Sicily, broke into Italy. The support of the Byzantines by the Christian church and the population of Italy played a significant role. In 536 the army of Belisarius entered Rome without a fight, and in three years the Byzantines captured the capital of the barbarians, Ravenna. It seemed that Justinian had almost reached his cherished goal, but then Slavs and Persians began to attack Byzantium, taking advantage of the presence of its troops in Italy. The emperor recalled Belisarius and sent him with an army to defend the eastern borders. The commander coped with this task. Before the conquest of lands in the West, Justinian returned only in 552. And although he managed to restore the borders of the Roman Empire during the time of Emperor Constantine, he almost doubled the territory of his state. Dil Sh. Main problems of Byzantine history. M., 1947 p. 24

During the time of Justinian I, the church of Hagia Sophia was built in Constantinople. Its construction, begun in 532, was provided by 10 thousand people for 5 years. Outside, the temple looked ordinary, but inside it was striking in size. A giant mosaic vault with a diameter of 31 meters seemed to be hanging in the air without any support. This was achieved by the fact that the large bath rested on two pivoba, each of which, in turn, relied on three small pivoba. The four pillars holding the vault were hidden, and only the triangular sails between the arches were clearly visible. The cross on the vault symbolized God's guardianship and protection of the empire. When the temple was consecrated in 537, Emperor Justinian I, enchanted by its majestic beauty, exclaimed: "Praise be to the Lord, who inspired me to carry out such a thing! Solomon, I surpassed you! Kazhdan A.P., Litavrin G.G. Essays on the history of Byzantium and Southern Slavs, St. Petersburg, Aleteyya, 1998, p. 64