Epochs in history in order. Historical epochs in order. Scheme of the general cyclicity of art history

Historical periodization is an indispensable thing both in science and in there are certain eras that cover specific time periods. Their names were invented quite recently, after a person was able to look in retrospect, evaluate and divide past events into stages. Now we will consider all the eras in order, find out why they were named that way and how they are characterized.

Why is there a historical chronology?

This technique was developed by researchers for a reason. First, each separate period is characterized by special cultural trends. Each era has its own worldview, fashion, the structure of society, the type of business building, and much more. Considering the epochs of mankind in order, one can also pay attention to the fact that each of them is characterized by separate types of art. This is music, and painting, and literature. Secondly, in the history of mankind there really were so-called turning points, when morality changed radically, new laws were established. This, of course, entailed a change in passions that manifested themselves in art. Such changes could be influenced by revolutions, wars, scientific discoveries, the teachings of great philosophers and church leaders. And now, before we consider all the historical eras in order, we note that our society has experienced such a cardinal change quite recently. Scientific and technological progress has completely turned our ideas about communication, sources of information, and even about work. And the reason for this is the Internet, without which ten years ago everyone did, and today it is a part of everyone's life.

antique period

We will omit the history of primitive society, since at that time there was simply no single ideology, religion, or at least a writing system. Therefore, when the epochs of mankind are considered in order, they begin precisely from the ancient period, because at that time the first states, the first laws and morals, as well as the art that we are still studying, appeared. The period began around the end of the 8th century BC. e. and lasted until 476 - the date of the fall. At this time, not only a polytheistic religion appeared with a clear fixation of all deities, but also a writing system - Greek and Latin. Also during this period, such a concept as slavery was born in Europe.

Middle Ages

Even when the school considers the epochs in order, special attention is paid to the study of the Middle Ages. The period began at the end of the 5th century, but there is no date for its end, at least an approximate one. Some believe that it ended in the middle of the 15th century, others believe that the Middle Ages lasted until the 17th century. The era is characterized by a huge upsurge of Christianity. It was during these years that the great crusades took place. Along with them, the Inquisition was born, which exterminated all opponents of the church. In the Middle Ages, such a form of slavery as feudalism arose, which existed in the world for many centuries later.

Renaissance

It is customary to single out this era as a separate one, but many historians believe that the Renaissance is, so to speak, the secular side of the Middle Ages. The bottom line is that in the end people began to cry out for humanity. Some ancient rules and morality returned, the Inquisition gradually lost its positions. This was manifested both in art and in the behavior of society. People began to attend theaters, there was such a thing as a secular ball. The Renaissance, like Antiquity, originated in Italy, and today numerous monuments of architecture and art are proof of this.

Baroque

When we consider directly the eras of human history in order, the baroque, although it did not last long, took an important branch in the development of art. Below we will consider it in more detail, but for now we note the following. This era was the logical conclusion of the Renaissance. We can say that the craving for secular entertainment and beauty has grown to incredible proportions. An architectural style of the same name appeared, which is characterized by pomposity and pretentiousness. A similar trend manifested itself in music, and in drawing, and even in people's behavior. lasted from the 16th to the 17th century.

Classicism

In the second half of the 17th century, mankind decided to move away from such lush idleness. Society, like the art that it created, became canonized and adjusted to clear rules. Classicism began to appear in the design of buildings and interiors. Right angles, straight lines, austerity and asceticism came into fashion. Theater and music, which were at the peak of their cultural development, were also subject to new reforms. There were certain styles that directed the authors in one direction or another. Below we will consider the eras in art in order and learn in more detail what classicism was.

Romantic period

In the 18th century, people seemed to have become infected with a mania for beauty and unearthly fantasies. This period is considered the most mysterious in the history of mankind, ephemeral and original. A trend has appeared in society, according to which each person is a separate spiritual and creative person, with his own inner world, experiences and joys. As a rule, when historians present cultural eras in chronological order, one of the most important places dedicated to romanticism. During this period, which lasted until the 19th century, unique masterpieces of music (Chopin, Schubert, etc.), literature (famous French novels) and painting appeared.

Education

In parallel with romanticism in art, society itself improved. When they list all the eras in order, as a rule, it is the Enlightenment that is put behind classicism. Along with the development of science and art at the end of the 17th century, the level of intelligence began to rise in society at a tremendous speed. This was expressed in the rejection of orthodox religious norms. Instead of sacred knowledge, logic and a bright mind came. This greatly undermined the authority of the aristocracy and ruling dynasties who cited the help of the church in many ways. The Age of Enlightenment marked the birth of a new philosophy based on mathematics and physics. There were a number of astronomical discoveries that refuted many religious dogmas. The Age of Enlightenment touched not only Europe, but also Russia, as well as Far East and even America. During this period, serfdom was abolished in many powers. It is also worth noting that in the 18-19th centuries, for the first time, women began to take part in scientific and state meetings.

Newest time

We briefly listed all the historical eras in order and came to the 20th century. This period is famous for the flourishing of various numerous coups d'état and changes in power regimes. Therefore, from a historical point of view, this era is called Since the beginning of the 20th century, we can say that society has become completely equal. Slavery was eradicated all over the world, clear borders of states were established. Such conditions have become the optimal environment for the development of not only art, but also science. We now live in this era, therefore, in order to consider it in detail, it is enough just to look around.

Brief summary

After we've submitted all the eras world history in order, described them, having learned what our society was like in a particular century, we turn to the study of beauty. After all, in parallel with the formation of laws and borders of states, art was formed, which for many is the main determining factor for dividing the history of mankind into separate periods. Below we will present the eras in art in order, characterize them and be able to compare a clear picture of how our society was formed from the very beginning of time. To begin with, we will list the main “eras” in a generalized way, and then we will divide them into separate industries. After all, musical periods do not always coincide in time with the periods of the same name in literature or, say, in painting.

Art: eras in chronological order

• Ancient period. From the moment the first rock paintings appeared, ending with the 8th century BC. e.
• Antiquity - from the 8th century BC. e. until the 6th century AD e.
• Medieval: and Gothic. The first dates from the 6th-10th centuries, and the second - from the 10th-14th centuries.
• Renaissance - famous 14-16th century.
• Baroque - 16-18th century.
• Rococo - 18th century.
• Classicism. It was formed against the background of other directions from the 16th to the 19th century.
• Romanticism - the first half of the 19th century.
• Eclecticism - the second half of the 19th century.
• Modernism - early 20th century. It is worth noting that modern is the general name for this creative era. IN different countries and in various areas of art, their own trends were formed, which we will discuss below.

What the pen will tell about ... At the origins of writing

Now consider the literary epochs in chronological order: the ancient stage (Antiquity and the East), the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, Classicism, Sentimentalism, Romanticism, Realism, Modernism and modernity. For the first time, literary creations began to appear in Greece, Rome, and also in It was in these powers that the first writing arose. Myths began to appear in the ancient world - about Hercules, about Zeus and other gods, about titans and giant birds. Later, the first philosophers, thinkers and writers appeared. This is Homer, Sappho, Aeschylus, Horace. This genre is now called lyrics, but such stories are often referred to as a historical reliable source. The world of the Ancient East is famous only for its instructive poems. However, let's not forget that it was in this part of the world that the most important book of mankind, the Bible, appeared in ancient times.

Middle Ages and Renaissance

There is no clear boundary between these periods, and it is not needed. Indeed, in the years when Europe was just beginning to form as a state system, people had no time for art. The first manifestations of creativity in the Middle Ages were stifled by the church. Therefore, the literary heritage that we have inherited since those years is only a knightly epic. Here you can name "The Song of My Sid", "The Song of Roland" and "The Song of the Nibelungen". A few centuries later, the Renaissance comes, and such names as Shakespeare, Dante, Boccaccio, Cervantes become known to the world. Their stories can be called free, since there is no clear structure, and a person and his feelings are in the center of events. This is the main characteristic of the Renaissance.

Formation of strict canons

When we list the eras in order, century after century, everything falls into place, except for Classicism. It seems to exist outside of time, space, against the background of other currents. From the moment the classics became the basis for the work of European authors, a number of patterns appeared in the writing of literary works. They were clearly divided into satire, tragedy, comedy, epic, fable. We can say that since then the boundaries of creativity have been established, which we still use today (pay attention at least to cinema).

Sentimentalism and romanticism

These two currents seem to complement each other. They are famous for their novels, which describe the experiences of the characters, their state of mind, tastes and interests. Among the authors of romanticism, such names as Balzac, Dickens, Hoffmann, Victor Hugo, the Bronte sisters, Mark Twain, W. Scott and many others are written in red letters. In the later years of Romanticism, authors such as Oscar Wilde and Edgar Allan Poe worked. Their stories are already devoid of sentimentality, but filled with deep philosophy.

Realism and modernism, as well as modern literature

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, many currents in literature appeared. In our country, they were called the Silver Age, in others they were simply named in accordance with the style of a particular work. Symbolism and decadence became the most popular. Representatives of these trends were such authors as Verlaine, Baudelaire, Rimbaud, Blok. Acmeism was very popular in Russia. Its main representative was Anna Akhmatova. Since then, literature has become as realistic as possible. People have given up inner experiences and illusions. From the beginning of the 20th century to the present day, the authors describe any events from the most realistic point of view, taking into account all the innovations of progress.

art

Now it's time to consider all the eras in painting in order. We note right away that there are much more of them here than in the literature, therefore we will turn to each of them briefly and concisely.

• Cave painting.
• Art ancient egypt and countries of the Middle East.
• Cretan-Mycenaean culture.
• Antique drawings and writing.
• Middle Ages: Icon Painting and Gothic Illustrations on Religious Themes.
• Renaissance. Prominent representatives are Michelangelo, da Vinci and others.
• From the 18th century, the Baroque style appeared in painting. Pronounced in the paintings of Caravaggio.
• Classicism, which had been formed in the visual arts since the 16th century, was embodied in the works of Poussin and Rubens.
• Romanticism manifested itself in the paintings of Delacour and Goya.
• Impressionism appeared at the end of the 19th century. Van Gogh is considered its brightest representative, and along with him are Gauguin, Lautrec Munch and others.
• In the 20th century, painting was divided into socialist realism and surrealism. The first trend developed exclusively in Russia. The second conquered the whole world. It is clearly visible in the paintings of S. Dali, P. Picasso and other artists of this time.

3. AGES AND PERIODS IN THE HISTORY OF HUMANITY

The history of mankind has many hundreds of thousands of years. If in the middle of the XX century. it was believed that man began to stand out from the animal world 600 thousand - 1 million years ago, then modern anthropology, the science of the origin and evolution of man, came to the conclusion that man appeared about 2 million years ago. This is the generally accepted view, although there are others. According to one hypothesis, human ancestors appeared in Southeast Africa 6 million years ago. These two-legged creatures did not know tools for more than 3 million years. They got their first tool 2.5 million years ago. About 1 million years ago, these people began to settle throughout Africa, and then beyond.

The two-million-year history of mankind is usually divided into two extremely uneven eras - primitive and civilizational (Fig. 2).

civilizational era

primeval era

about 2 million

years BC e.

BC e. frontier

Rice. 2. Epochs in the history of mankind

Epoch primitive society accounts for more than 99% of human history. The primitive era is usually divided into six unequal periods: Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Eneolithic, Bronze Age, Iron Age.

Paleolithic, the ancient Stone Age, is divided into the early (lower) Paleolithic (2 million years BC - 35 thousand years BC) and the late (upper) Paleolithic (35 thousand years BC - 10 thousand years BC). During the early Paleolithic, man penetrated the territory of Eastern Europe and the Urals. The struggle for existence during the Ice Age taught man to make fire, to make stone knives; the proto-language and the first religious ideas were born. In the late Paleolithic period, the skilled man turned into a reasonable man; races were formed - Caucasoid, Negroid, Mongoloid. The primitive herd was replaced by a higher form of organization of society - the tribal community. Until the time of the spread of metal, matriarchy dominated.

Mesolithic, the Middle Stone Age, lasted about 5 thousand years (X thousand years BC - V thousand years BC). At this time, people began to use stone axes, bows and arrows, domestication of animals (dogs, pigs) began. This is the time of mass settlement of Eastern Europe and the Urals.

Neolithic, the new stone age (VI thousand years BC - IV thousand years BC), is characterized by significant changes in technology and forms of production. Polished and drilled stone axes appeared, clay dishes, spinning and weaving. formed Various types economic activity - agriculture and animal husbandry. The transition from gathering, from the appropriating economy to the producing one, began. Scientists call this time neolithic revolution.

During Eneolithic, Copper-Stone Age (IV thousand years BC - III thousand years BC), bronze age(III thousand years BC - I thousand years BC), iron age(II millennium BC - the end of the 1st millennium BC) in the most favorable climatic zone of the Earth, the transition from primitive to ancient civilizations began.

The appearance of metal tools and weapons in different parts of the Earth did not occur simultaneously, so the chronological framework of the last three periods of the primitive era varies depending on the specific region. In the Urals, the chronological framework of the Eneolithic is determined by the III millennium BC. e. - the beginning of the II millennium BC. e., the Bronze Age - the beginning of the II millennium BC. e. - the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e., Iron Age - from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e.

During the spread of metal, large cultural communities began to take shape. Scientists believe that these communities corresponded to the language families from which the peoples who currently inhabit our country came out. The largest language family is Indo-European, from which 3 groups of languages ​​have emerged: Eastern (current Iranians, Indians, Armenians, Tajiks), European (Germans, French, English, Italians, Greeks), Slavic (Russians, Belarusians, Ukrainians, Poles, Czechs , Slovaks, Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats). Another large language family is Finno-Ugric (current Finns, Estonians, Karelians, Khanty, Mordovians).

During the Bronze Age, the ancestors of the Slavs (Proto-Slavs) emerged from the Indo-European tribes; Archaeologists find the monuments belonging to them in the region located from the Oder River in the west to the Carpathians in the east of Europe.

Civilization era is about six thousand years old. In this era, a qualitatively different world is being created, although for a long time it still had many ties with primitiveness, and the transition to civilizations itself was carried out gradually, starting from the 4th millennium BC. e. While part of humanity was making a breakthrough - moving from primitive to civilized, in other areas people continued to be at the stage of the primitive communal system.

The civilizational epoch is usually called world history and is divided into four periods (Figure 3 on page 19).

Ancient world began with the emergence of civilization in Mesopotamia or Mesopotamia (in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers). In the III millennium BC. e. a civilization arose in the valley of the Nile River - the ancient Egyptian. In the II millennium BC. e. Ancient Indian, Ancient Chinese, Hebrew, Phoenician, Ancient Greek, Hittite civilizations were born. In I millennium BC. e. list ancient civilizations replenished: on the territory of Transcaucasia, the civilization of Urartu was formed, on the territory of Iran - the civilization of the Persians, on the Apennine Peninsula - the Roman civilization. The zone of civilizations covered not only the Old World, but also America, where the civilizations of the Maya, Aztecs and Incas developed.

The main criteria for the transition from the primitive world to civilizations:

The emergence of the state, a special institution that organizes, controls and directs the joint activities and relations of people, social groups;

the emergence of private property, the stratification of society, the emergence of slavery;

social division of labor (agriculture, handicraft, trade) and the producing economy;

the emergence of cities, a special type of settlements, centers

Newest

Ancient world Middle Ages Modern times

IV millennium 476

BC e. BC e. XV-XVI 1920s

Rice. 3. The main periods of world history

crafts and trade, in which the inhabitants, at least in part, were not engaged in rural labor (Ur, Babylon, Memphis, Thebes, Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Pataliputra, Nanyang, Sanyan, Athens, Sparta, Rome, Naples, etc.);

the creation of writing (the main stages are ideographic or hieroglyphic writing, syllabic writing, alpha-sound or alphabetic writing), thanks to which people were able to consolidate laws, scientific and religious ideas and pass them on to posterity;

the creation of monumental structures (pyramids, temples, amphitheaters) that do not have an economic purpose.

Completion ancient world associated with 476 AD. e., the year of the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Back in 330, Emperor Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire to its eastern part, on the banks of the Bosporus, to the place of the Greek colony of Byzantium. New capital was named Constantinople (the old Russian name of Tsargrad). In 395, the Roman Empire split into Eastern and Western. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire, officially called the "Empire of the Romans", and in literature - Byzantium, became the successor to the ancient world. Byzantine Empire existed for about a thousand years, until 1453 and had a huge impact on Ancient Rus'(see ch. 7).

Chronological framework middle ages, 476 - the end of the 15th century, are determined, first of all, by the events and processes that took place in Western Europe. The Middle Ages is an important step in the development of European civilization. During this period, many special features took shape and began to develop, which distinguished Western Europe from other civilizations and had a tremendous impact on all of humanity.

Eastern civilizations during this period did not stop in their development. There were rich cities in the East. The East presented the world with famous inventions: a compass, gunpowder, paper, glass, etc. However, the pace of development of the East, especially after the invasion of nomads at the turn of the 1st-2nd millennia (Bedouins, Seljuk Turks, Mongols), was slower compared to the West. But the main thing was that the eastern civilizations were focused on repetition, on the constant reproduction of the old, in antiquity established forms of statehood, social relations, and ideas. Tradition put up solid barriers, holding back change; Eastern cultures resisted innovation.

The end of the Middle Ages and the onset of the third period of world history is associated with the beginning of three world-historical processes - a spiritual upheaval in the life of Europeans, the Great Geographical Discoveries, and manufactory production.

The spiritual upheaval included two phenomena, a kind of two revolutions in the spiritual life of Europe - the Renaissance (Renaissance) and the Reformation.

modern science he sees the origins of the spiritual revolution in the crusades organized at the end of the 11th - 13th centuries. European chivalry and the Catholic Church under the banner of the struggle against the "infidels" (Muslims), the liberation of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem and the Holy Land (Palestine). The consequences of these campaigns for the then poor Europe were important. Europeans came into contact with a higher culture of the Middle East, adopted more advanced methods of cultivating the land and craft techniques, brought many useful plants from the East (rice, buckwheat, citrus fruits, cane sugar, apricots), silk, glass, paper, woodcuts (woodcut print ).

Medieval cities (Paris, Marseille, Venice, Genoa, Florence, Milan, Lübeck, Frankfurt am Main) were the centers of the spiritual upheaval. Cities achieved self-government, became centers not only of crafts and trade, but also of education. In Europe, the townspeople have achieved recognition of their rights at the national level, formed the third estate.

rebirth originated in Italy in the second half of the XIV century, in the XV-XVI centuries. spread throughout Western Europe. Distinctive features of the culture of the Renaissance: secular character, humanistic worldview, appeal to cultural heritage antiquity, as if its “revival” (hence the name of the phenomenon). The work of the Renaissance figures was imbued with faith in the limitless possibilities of man, his will and mind. Among the brilliant pleiad of poets, writers, playwrights, painters and sculptors whose names humanity is proud of are Dante Alighieri, Francesco Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio, Francois Rabelais, Ulrich von Hutten, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Miguel Cervantes, William Shakespeare, Geoffrey Chaucer, Thomas More, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael Santi, Michelangelo, Titian, Velasquez, Rembrandt.

Reformation- a social movement in Europe in the 16th century directed against the Catholic Church. Its beginning is considered to be 1517, when the doctor of theology Martin Luther made 95 theses against the sale of indulgences (certificates of the remission of sins). The ideologists of the Reformation put forward theses that actually denied the need for the Catholic Church with its hierarchy and the clergy in general, denied the Church's rights to land and other wealth. Under the ideological banner of the Reformation, the Peasant War in Germany (1524-1526), ​​the Dutch and English revolutions took place.

The Reformation marked the beginning of Protestantism, the third current in Christianity. This trend, which broke away from Catholicism, united many independent churches, sects (Lutheranism, Calvinism, the Anglican Church, Baptists, etc.). Protestantism is characterized by the absence of a fundamental opposition of the clergy to the laity, the rejection of a complex church hierarchy, a simplified cult, the absence of monasticism, celibacy; in Protestantism there is no cult of the Virgin, saints, angels, icons, the number of sacraments is reduced to two (baptism and communion). The main source of doctrine among Protestants is the Holy Scripture (that is, the Old Testament and the New Testament).

The Renaissance and the Reformation put the human personality in the center, energetic, striving to transform the world, with a pronounced strong-willed beginning. However, the Reformation had a more disciplinary effect; it encouraged individualism, but placed it within a strict framework of morality based on religious values.

Great geographical discoveries- a complex of the most significant discoveries on land and at sea from the middle of the 15th to the middle of the 17th centuries. Of great importance were the discoveries of Central and South America (H. Columbus, A. Vespucci, A. Velez de Mendoza, 1492-1502), the sea route from Europe to India (Vasco da Gama, 1497-1499). The first round-the-world trip of F. Magellan in 1519-1522. proved the existence of the World Ocean and the sphericity of the Earth. Great geographical discoveries became possible thanks to technical discoveries and inventions, including the creation of new ships - caravels. At the same time, long-distance sea voyages stimulated the development of science, technology, and manufactory production. The era of colonial conquests began, which was accompanied by violence, robberies and even the death of civilizations (Maya, Incas, Aztecs). European countries seized lands in America (from the beginning of the 16th century blacks began to be imported there), Africa, and India. The wealth of the enslaved countries, as a rule, less developed in socio-economic respect, gave a powerful impetus to the development of industry and trade, and ultimately to the industrial modernization of Europe.

At the end of the XV century. originated in Europe manufactories(from lat. - I do with my hands), large enterprises based on the division of labor and handicraft technology. Often the period of European history from the appearance of manufactories to the start of the industrial revolution is called "manufactory". There were two forms of manufactory: centralized (the entrepreneur himself created a large workshop, in which all operations for the manufacture of a particular product were carried out under his leadership) and much more common - scattered (the entrepreneur distributed raw materials to homeworkers-artisans and received from them a finished product or semi-finished product) . Manufactories contributed to the deepening of the social division of labor, the improvement of production tools, the growth of labor productivity, the formation of new social strata - the industrial bourgeoisie and wage workers (this social process will end during the industrial revolution). Manufactories prepared the transition to machine production.

World historical processes, indicating the end of the Middle Ages, required new ways of transmitting information. This new method was printing. A breakthrough in the technique of book production was made by Johannes Gutenberg. Gutenberg's invention was an overdue and prepared development of the book industry in previous centuries: the appearance in Europe of paper, the technique of woodcutting, the creation in scriptoria (monastic workshops) and universities of hundreds and thousands of handwritten books of predominantly religious content. Gutenberg in 1453-1454 In Mainz, he first printed a book, the so-called 42-line Bible. Typography has become a material base for the dissemination of knowledge, information, literacy, and sciences.

Chronological framework of the third period of world history, new time(the beginning of the 16th century - the beginning of the 1920s) are defined in the same way as the medieval period, primarily by the events and processes that took place in Western Europe. Since in other countries, including Russia, development was slower than in the West, the processes characteristic of modern times began here later.

With the advent of modern times, the destruction of medieval foundations (that is, political and social institutions, norms, customs) and the formation of an industrial society began. The process of transition of a medieval (traditional, agrarian) society to an industrial society is called modernization (from French - the latest, modern). This process took about three hundred years in Europe.

Modernization processes took place at different times: they started earlier and proceeded faster in Holland and England; slower these processes were in France; even slower - in Germany, Italy, Russia; a special path of modernization was in North America (USA, Canada); started in the East in the 20th century. modernization processes are called westernization (from English - western).

Modernization covered all areas of society, it included:

Industrialization, the process of creating large-scale machine production; the beginning of the process of ever-increasing use of machines in production was laid by the industrial revolution (it first began in England in the 1760s, in Russia it began at the turn of the 1830s-1840s);

Urbanization (from Latin - urban), the process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society; the city for the first time gains economic dominance,

pushing the village into the background (already at the end of the 18th century, the proportion of the urban population in Holland was 50%; in England this figure was 30%; in France - 15%, and in Russia - about 5%);

democratization political life, creation of prerequisites for the formation of the rule of law and civil society;

Secularization, limiting the influence of the church in the life of society, including the conversion by the state of church property (mainly land) into secular property; the process of dissemination of secular elements in culture was called "secularization" of culture (from the word "worldly" - secular);

Fast, in comparison with the previous period, the growth of knowledge about nature and society.

The ideas of the Enlightenment played an important role in the process of modernization, in the spiritual upheaval. Education, as an ideological movement based on the conviction of the decisive role of reason and science in the knowledge of the "natural order" corresponding to the true nature of man and society, arose in England in the 17th century. (J. Locke, A. Collins). In the XVIII century. Enlightenment spread throughout Europe, reached its peak in France - F. Voltaire, D. Diderot, C. Montesquieu, J.-J. Rousseau. The French enlighteners, led by D. Diderot, participated in the creation of a unique publication - the Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts, which is why they are called encyclopedists. Enlighteners of the 18th century in Germany - G. Lessing, J. Goethe; in the USA - T. Jefferson, B. Franklin; in Russia - N. Novikov, A. Radishchev. Enlighteners considered ignorance, obscurantism, religious fanaticism to be the causes of all human disasters. They opposed the feudal-absolutist regime, for political freedom, civil equality. The Enlighteners did not call for revolution, but their ideas played a revolutionary role in the public consciousness. The 18th century is most often referred to as the Age of Enlightenment.

A huge role in the process of modernization was played by revolutions, cardinal changes in the socio-political system, characterized by a sharp break with the previous tradition, the violent transformation of public and state institutions. In the West in the XVI-XVIII centuries. revolutions swept four countries: Holland (1566-1609), England (1640-1660), USA (War for the Independence of the North American Colonies, 1775-1783), France (1789-1799). In the 19th century revolutions engulfed others European countries: Austria, Belgium, Hungary, Germany, Italy, Spain. In the 19th century The West "had been ill" with revolutions, having undergone a kind of vaccination.

The 19th century is called the "age of capitalism" because in this century an industrial society was established in Europe. Two factors were decisive in the victory of industrial society: the industrial revolution, the transition from manufactory to machine production; change in the political and social structure of society, almost complete liberation from the state, political, legal institutions of traditional society. For the main differences between industrial and traditional societies, see Table. 1. (p. 27).

The end of modern times is usually associated with the First World War (1914-1918) and revolutionary upheavals in Europe and Asia in 1918-1923.

The fourth period of world history, which began in the 1920s, was called modern times in Soviet historiography. For a long time, propaganda meaning was put into the name of the last period of world history as the beginning of a new era in the history of mankind, opened October Revolution 1917.

In the West, the last period of world history is called modernity, modern history. Moreover, the beginning of modernity is mobile: once it began in 1789, then - in 1871, now - from the beginning of the 1920s.

The question of the end of the fourth period of world history and the onset of the fifth period, just like the whole problem of periodization, is debatable. It is quite obvious that in the world at the turn of the XX - XXI century. V. there have been drastic changes. Understanding their essence, significance and consequences for humanity, which has entered the III millennium from the birth of Christ, is the most important task of economists, sociologists, and historians.

Table 1.

The main features of traditional and industrial societies

4th century AD - Formation of the first tribal union of the Eastern Slavs (Volhynians and Buzhans).
5th century - Formation of the second tribal union of the Eastern Slavs (glades) in the basin of the middle Dnieper.
6th century - The first written news about "Rus" and "Rus". The conquest of the Slavic tribe Dulebs by the Avars (558).
7th century - Settlement of Slavic tribes in the basins of the upper Dnieper, Western Dvina, Volkhov, Upper Volga, etc.
8th century - The beginning of the expansion of the Khazar Khaganate to the north, the imposition of tribute on the Slavic tribes of the glades, northerners, Vyatichi, Radimichi.

Kievan Rus

838 - The first known embassy of the "Russian Kagan" in Constantinople ..
860 - Campaign of the Rus (Askold?) to Byzantium ..
862 - Formation of the Russian state with the capital in Novgorod. The first mention of Murom in the annals.
862-879 - The reign of Prince Rurik (879+) in Novgorod.
865 - Capture of Kyiv by Varangians Askold and Dir.
OK. 863 - Creation of the Slavic alphabet by Cyril and Methodius in Moravia.
866 - Campaign of the Slavs to Tsargrad (Constantinople).
879-912 - The reign of Prince Oleg (912+).
882 - Unification of Novgorod and Kyiv under the rule of Prince Oleg. Transfer of the capital from Novgorod to Kyiv.
883-885 - Subordination of the Krivichi, Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichi by Prince Oleg. Formation of the territory of Kievan Rus.
907 - Prince Oleg's campaign against Tsargrad. The first treaty between Rus' and Byzantium.
911 - The conclusion of the second treaty between Rus' and Byzantium.
912-946 - The reign of Prince Igor (946x).
913 - Rebellion in the land of the Drevlyans.
913-914 - Campaigns of the Rus against the Khazars along the Caspian coast of Transcaucasia.
915 - Treaty of Prince Igor with the Pechenegs.
941 - 1st campaign of Prince Igor against Tsargrad.
943-944 - Prince Igor's 2nd campaign against Tsargrad. Treaty of Prince Igor with Byzantium.
944-945 - The campaign of the Rus to the Caspian coast of Transcaucasia.
946-957 - Simultaneous reign of Princess Olga and Prince Svyatoslav.
OK. 957 - Olga's trip to Tsargrad and her baptism.
957-972 - The reign of Prince Svyatoslav (972x).
964-966 - Campaigns of Prince Svyatoslav to Volga Bulgaria, Khazars, tribes North Caucasus and Vyatichi. The defeat of the Khazar Khaganate in the lower reaches of the Volga. Establishing control over the Volga-Caspian Sea trade route.
968-971 - Campaigns of Prince Svyatoslav in Danube Bulgaria. The defeat of the Bulgarians at the Battle of Dorostol (970). Wars with the Pechenegs.
969 - Death of Princess Olga.
971 - Treaty of Prince Svyatoslav with Byzantium.
972-980 - The reign of the Grand Duke Yaropolk (980s).
977-980 - Internecine wars for possession of Kiev between Yaropolk and Vladimir.
980-1015 - The reign of Grand Duke Vladimir the Holy (1015+).
980 - Pagan reform of Grand Duke Vladimir. An attempt to create a single cult that unites the gods of various tribes.
985 - The campaign of the Grand Duke Vladimir with the allied torcs against the Volga Bulgars.
988 - Baptism of Rus'. The first evidence in the assertion of the power of the Kyiv princes on the banks of the Oka.
994-997 - Grand Duke Vladimir's campaigns against the Volga Bulgars.
1010 - Foundation of the city of Yaroslavl.
1015-1019 - The reign of the Grand Duke Svyatopolk the Accursed. Wars for the Grand Duke's Throne.
early 11th century - resettlement of the Polovtsy between the Volga and the Dnieper.
1015 - The murder of princes Boris and Gleb on the orders of Grand Duke Svyatopolk.
1016 - The defeat of the Khazars by Byzantium with the help of Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich. The suppression of the uprising in the Crimea.
1019 - The defeat of the Grand Duke Svyatopolk the Accursed in the fight against Prince Yaroslav.
1019-1054 - The reign of the Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise (1054+).
1022 - Victory of Mstislav the Brave over the Kasogs (Circassians).
1023-1025 - War of Mstislav the Brave and Grand Duke Yaroslav for the great reign. Victory of Mstislav the Brave in the Battle of Listven (1024).
1025 - Division of Kievan Rus between princes Yaroslav and Mstislav (border along the Dnieper).
1026 - Yaroslav the Wise conquers the Baltic tribes of Livs and Chuds.
1030 - Foundation of the city of Yuryev (modern Tartu) in the Chud land.
1030-1035 - Construction of the Transfiguration Cathedral in Chernigov.
1036 - Death of Prince Mstislav the Brave. The unification of Kievan Rus under the rule of Grand Duke Yaroslav.
1037 - The defeat of the Pechenegs by Prince Yaroslav and the laying of the Hagia Sophia in Kyiv in honor of this event (completed in 1041).
1038 - Victory of Yaroslav the Wise against the Yotvingians (a Lithuanian tribe).
1040 - War of the Rus with the Lithuanians.
1041 - Rus' campaign against the Finnish Yam tribe.
1043 - The campaign of the Novgorod prince Vladimir Yaroslavich against Tsargrad (the last campaign against Byzantium).
1045-1050 - Construction of St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod.
1051 - Foundation of the male Kiev-Pechersk monastery. Appointment of the first metropolitan (Hilarion) from among the Russians, appointed to office without the consent of Constantinople.
1054-1078 - The reign of the Grand Duke Izyaslav Yaroslavich (The actual triumvirate of princes Izyaslav, Svyatoslav Yaroslavich and Vsevolod Yaroslavich. "The Truth of the Yaroslavichs." The weakening of the supreme power of the Kyiv prince.
1055 - The first news of the chronicle about the appearance of the Polovtsy near the borders of the Pereyaslav principality.
1056-1057 - Creation of the "Ostromir Gospel" - the oldest dated handwritten Russian book.
1061 - Polovtsian raid on Rus'.
1066 - Prince Vseslav of Polotsk raided Novgorod. The defeat and capture of Vseslav by the Grand Duke Izslav.
1068 - A new raid of the Polovtsians into Rus', led by Khan Sharukan. Campaign of the Yaroslavichs against the Polovtsians and their defeat on the Alta River. The uprising of the townspeople in Kyiv, the flight of Izyaslav to Poland.
1068-1069 - Great reign of Prince Vseslav (about 7 months).
1069 - Return of Izyaslav to Kyiv together with the Polish king Boleslav II.
1078 - The death of Grand Duke Izyaslav in the battle of Nezhatina Niva with outcasts Boris Vyacheslavich and Oleg Svyatoslavich.
1078-1093 - The reign of Grand Duke Vsevolod Yaroslavich. Land redistribution (1078).
1093-1113 - The reign of Grand Duke Svyatopolk II Izyaslavich.
1093-1095 - War of the Rus with the Polovtsians. The defeat of the princes Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh in the battle with the Polovtsians on the Stugna River (1093).
1095-1096 - Internecine struggle of Prince Vladimir Monomakh and his sons with Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich and his brothers for the Rostov-Suzdal, Chernigov and Smolensk principalities.
1097 - Lubech Congress of Princes. Assignment of principalities to princes on the basis of patrimonial law. The fragmentation of the state into specific principalities. Separation of the Principality of Murom from Chernigov.
1100 - Vitichevsky congress of princes.
1103 - Dolobsky congress of princes before the campaign against the Polovtsy. Successful campaign of princes Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and Vladimir Monomakh against the Polovtsy.
1107 - Capture of Suzdal by the Volga Bulgars.
1108 - Foundation of the city of Vladimir on the Klyazma as a fortress to protect the Suzdal principality from the Chernigov princes.
1111 - The campaign of Russian princes against the Polovtsy. The defeat of the Polovtsians at Salnitsa.
1113 - The first edition of "The Tale of Bygone Years" (Nestor). The uprising in Kyiv of dependent (enslaved) people against the princely power and merchants-usurers. Charter of Vladimir Vsevolodovich.
1113-1125 - The reign of Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh. Temporary strengthening of the power of the Grand Duke. Drawing up the "Statutes of Vladimir Monomakh" (legal registration of judicial law, regulation of rights in other areas of life).
1116 - Second edition of The Tale of Bygone Years (Sylvester). Victory of Vladimir Monomakh over the Polovtsy.
1118 - The conquest of Minsk by Vladimir Monomakh.
1125-1132 - The reign of the Grand Duke Mstislav I the Great.
1125-1157 - Reign of Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky in the Rostov-Suzdal Principality.
1126 - The first election of a posadnik in Novgorod.
1127 - The final division of the Polotsk principality into appanages.
1127 -1159 - Reigning in Smolensk Rostislav Mstislavich. The heyday of the Smolensk principality.
1128 - Famine in Novgorod, Pskov, Suzdal, Smolensk and Polotsk lands.
1129 - Separation of the Ryazan principality from the Murom-Ryazan principality.
1130 -1131 - Rus campaigns against the Chud, the beginning of successful campaigns against Lithuania. Clashes between the Muromo-Ryazan princes and the Polovtsy.
1132-1139 - The reign of Grand Duke Yaropolk II Vladimirovich. The final decline of the power of the Kyiv Grand Duke.
1135-1136 - Unrest in Novgorod, charter of the Novgorod prince Vsevolod Mstislavovich on the management of merchant people, the expulsion of Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich. Invitation to Novgorod Svyatoslav Olgovich. Strengthening the principle of inviting the prince to vechem.
1137 - Separation of Pskov from Novgorod, formation of the Pskov principality.
1139 - 1st great reign of Vyacheslav Vladimirovich (8 days). Unrest in Kyiv and its capture by Vsevolod Olegovich.
1139-1146 - The reign of Grand Duke Vsevolod II Olgovich.
1144 - Formation of the Principality of Galicia by combining several specific principalities.
1146 - The reign of Grand Duke Igor Olgovich (six months). The beginning of the fierce struggle of the princely clans for the throne of Kiev (Monomakhovichi, Olgovichi, Davydovichi) - lasted until 1161.
1146-1154 - The reign of Grand Duke Izyaslav III Mstislavich intermittently: in 1149, 1150 - the reign of Yuri Dolgoruky; In 1150 - the 2nd great reign of Vyacheslav Vladimirovich (all - less than six months). Strengthening of the internecine struggle between the Suzdal and Kyiv princes.
1147 - The first annalistic mention of the city of Moscow.
1149 - The struggle of the Novgorodians with the Finns for Vod. Attempts by the Suzdal prince Yuri Dolgorukov to recapture the Ugra tribute from the Novgorodians.
Bookmark "Yuriev in the field" (Yuriev-Polsky).
1152 - Foundation of the city of Pereyaslavl-Zalessky and the city of Kostroma.
1154 - Foundation of the city of Dmitrov and the village of Bogolyubov.
1154-1155 - The reign of Grand Duke Rostislav Mstislavich.
1155 - 1st reign of Grand Duke Izyaslav Davydovich (about six months).
1155-1157 - The reign of Grand Duke Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky.
1157-1159 - Parallel reign of Grand Duke Izyaslav Davydovich in Kyiv and Andrei Yurievich Bogolyubsky in Vladimir-Suzdal.
1159-1167 - Parallel reign of Grand Duke Rostislav Mstislavich in Kyiv and Andrei Yurievich Bogolyubsky in Vladimir-Suzdal.
1160 - The revolt of the Novgorodians against Svyatoslav Rostislavovich.
1164 - Andrei Bogolyubsky's campaign against the Volga Bulgarians. The victory of Novgorodians over the Swedes.
1167-1169 - Parallel reign of Grand Duke Mstislav II Izyaslavich in Kyiv and Andrei Yurievich Bogolyubsky in Vladimir.
1169 - The capture of Kyiv by the troops of the Grand Duke Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky. Transfer of the capital of Rus' from Kyiv to Vladimir. Rise of Vladimir Rus.

Rus' Vladimirskaya

1169-1174 - The reign of Grand Duke Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky. Transfer of the capital of Rus' from Kyiv to Vladimir.
1174 - Murder of Andrei Bogolyubsky. The first mention in the annals of the name "nobles".
1174-1176 - The reign of Grand Duke Mikhail Yurievich. Civil strife and uprisings of citizens in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.
1176-1212 - The reign of Grand Duke Vsevolod The Big Nest. The heyday of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus.
1176 - War of the Rus with the Volga-Kama Bulgaria. The clash of the Rus with the Estonians.
1180 - The beginning of civil strife and the collapse of the Smolensk principality. Civil strife between the Chernigov and Ryazan princes.
1183-1184 - Great campaign of Vladimir-Suzdal princes under the leadership of Vsevolod Big nest on the Volga Bulgars. Successful campaign of the princes of Southern Rus' against the Polovtsy.
1185 - Unsuccessful campaign of Prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsy.
1186-1187 - Internecine struggle between the Ryazan princes.
1188 - Novgorod attack on German merchants in Novotorzhok.
1189-1192 - 3rd crusade
1191 - Campaigns of Novgorodians with a koreley to the pit.
1193 - Unsuccessful campaign of the Novgorodians against Yugra.
1195 - The first known trade agreement between Novgorod and German cities.
1196 - Recognition of Novgorod liberties by the princes. Campaign of Vsevolod the Big Nest to Chernigov.
1198 - Conquest of the Udmurts by the Novgorodians Relocation of the Teutonic Order of the Crusaders from Palestine to the Baltic. Pope Celestine III proclaims the Northern Crusade.
1199 - Formation of the Galicia-Volyn principality through the unification of the Galician and Volyn principalities. Rise of Roman Mstislavich the Great Founding of the fortress of Riga by Bishop Albrecht. Establishment of the Order of the Sword for the Christianization of Livonia (modern Latvia and Estonia)
1202-1224 - The Order of the Sword-bearers captures Russian possessions in the Baltic. The struggle of the Order with Novgorod, Pskov and Polotsk for Livonia.
1207 - Separation of the Rostov Principality from the Vladimir Principality. Unsuccessful defense of the Kukonas fortress in the middle reaches of the Western Dvina by Prince Vyacheslav Borisovich ("Vyachko"), the grandson of the Smolensk prince Davyd Rostislavich.
1209 - The first mention in the annals of Tver (according to V.N. Tatishchev, Tver was founded in 1181).
1212-1216 - 1st reign of Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich. Internecine struggle with brother Konstantin Rostovsky. The defeat of Yuri Vsevolodovich in the battle on the Lipitsa River near the city of Yuryev-Polsky.
1216-1218 - The reign of Grand Duke Konstantin Vsevolodovich of Rostov.
1218-1238 - 2nd reign of Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich (1238x) 1219 - foundation of the city of Revel (Kolyvan, Tallinn)
1220-1221 - The campaign of Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich to the Volga Bulgaria, the seizure of land in the lower reaches of the Oka. The foundation of Nizhny Novgorod (1221) in the land of the Mordovians as an outpost against the Volga Bulgaria. 1219-1221 - the capture of the states of Central Asia by Genghis Khan
1221 - Campaign of Yuri Vsevolodovich against the Crusaders, unsuccessful siege of the fortress of Riga.
1223 - The defeat of the coalition of the Polovtsy and Russian princes in the battle with the Mongols on the river Kalka. Campaign of Yuri Vsevolodovich against the Crusaders.
1224 - The capture of Yuryev (Derpt, modern Tartu) by the knights of the sword - the main Russian fortress in the Baltic states.
1227 - Campaign led. Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich and other princes to the Mordovians. The death of Genghis Khan, the proclamation of the Great Khan of the Mongol-Tatars Batu.
1232 - The campaign of the Suzdal, Ryazan and Murom princes against the Mordovians.
1233 - An attempt by the knights of the sword to take the fortress of Izborsk.
1234 - The victory of the Novgorod prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich over the Germans near Yuryev and the conclusion of peace with them. Suspension of the advance of the sword-bearers to the east.
1236-1249 - Reign of Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky in Novgorod.
1236 - the defeat of the great Khan Batu of the Volga Bulgaria and the tribes of the Volga region.
1236 - the defeat of the troops of the Order of the Sword by the Lithuanian prince Mindovg. The death of the Grand Master of the Order.
1237-1238 - Mongol-Tatar invasion of North-Eastern Rus'. The ruin of the city of Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities.
1237 - the defeat of the troops of the Teutonic Order by Daniil Romanovich of Galicia. Merger of the remnants of the Order of the Sword and the Teutonic Order. Formation of the Livonian Order.
1238 - The defeat of the troops of the princes of North-Eastern Rus' in the battle on the river Sit (March 4, 1238). The death of Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich. Separation of the Belozersky and Suzdal principalities from the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.
1238-1246 - The reign of Grand Duke Yaroslav II Vsevolodovich ..
1239 - The devastation of the Mordovian lands, Chernigov and Pereyaslav principalities by the Tatar-Mongolian troops.
1240 - Mongol-Tatar invasion of South Rus'. The ruin of Kiev (1240) and the Galicia-Volyn principality. The victory of the Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavich over the Swedish army in the battle on the Neva River ("Battle of the Neva")..
1240-1241 - The invasion of the Teutonic knights into the lands of Pskov and Novgorod, the capture of Pskov, Izborsk, Luga;
The construction of the Koporye fortress (now the village of Lomonosovsky district, Leningrad region).
1241-1242 - The expulsion of the Teutonic knights by Alexander Nevsky, the liberation of Pskov and other cities. The Mongol-Tatar invasion of Eastern Europe. The defeat of the Hungarian troops on the river. Salt (11.04.1241), the devastation of Poland, the fall of Krakow.
1242 - Victory of Alexander Nevsky over the knights of the Teutonic Order in the battle of Lake Peipus (" Battle on the Ice"). The conclusion of peace with Livonia on the condition of its renunciation of claims to Russian lands. The defeat of the Mongol-Tatars from the Czechs in the battle of Olomouc. The completion of the "Great Western Campaign".
1243 - Arrival of the Russian princes to the headquarters of Batu. Announcement of Prince Yaroslav II Vsevolodovich "the oldest" Formation of the "Golden Horde"
1245 - Battle of Yaroslavl (Galician) - the last battle of Daniil Romanovich of Galicia in the struggle for the possession of the Galician principality.
1246-1249 - The reign of the Grand Duke Svyatoslav III Vsevolodovich 1246 - The death of the great Khan Batu
1249-1252 - The reign of Grand Duke Andrei Yaroslavich.
1252 - Ruinous "Nevryuev's army" to the Vladimir-Suzdal land.
1252-1263 - The reign of Grand Duke Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky. The campaign of Prince Alexander Nevsky at the head of the Novgorodians to Finland (1256).
1252-1263 - the reign of the first Lithuanian prince Mindovg Ringoldovich.
1254 - the foundation of the city of Saray - the capital of the "Golden Horde". Struggle of Novgorod and Sweden for Southern Finland.
1257-1259 - The first Mongol census of the population of Rus', the creation of the Basque system for the collection of tribute. The uprising of the townspeople in Novgorod (1259) against the Tatar "numerals".
1261 - Establishment of an Orthodox diocese in the city of Saray.
1262 - Uprisings of the townspeople of Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir and Yaroslavl against Muslim tax-farmers, tribute collectors. Order to collect tribute to the Russian princes.
1263-1272 - The reign of Grand Duke Yaroslav III Yaroslavich.
1267 - Genoa receives a khan's label for possession of Kafa (Feodosia) in the Crimea. The beginning of the Genoese colonization of the coast of the Azov and Black Seas. Formation of colonies in Cafe, Matrega (Tmutarakan), Mapa (Anapa), Tanya (Azov).
1268 - A joint campaign of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes, Novgorodians and Pskovians to Livonia, their victory at Rakovor.
1269 - The siege of Pskov by the Livonians, the conclusion of peace with Livonia and the stabilization of the western border of Pskov and Novgorod.
1272-1276 - The reign of Grand Duke Vasily Yaroslavich 1275 - the campaign of the Tatar-Mongol army against Lithuania
1272-1303 - Reign of Daniil Alexandrovich in Moscow. Foundation of the Moscow dynasty of princes.
1276 The second Mongolian census of the population of Rus'.
1276-1294 - The reign of Grand Duke Dmitry Alexandrovich Pereyaslavsky.
1288-1291 - struggle for the throne in the Golden Horde
1292 - Invasion of the Tatars under the leadership of Tudan (Deden).
1293-1323 - War between Novgorod and Sweden for the Karelian Isthmus.
1294-1304 - The reign of Grand Duke Andrei Alexandrovich Gorodetsky.
1299 - Transfer of the metropolitan see from Kyiv to Vladimir by Metropolitan Maxim.
1300-1301 - The construction of the Landskrona fortress on the Neva by the Swedes and its destruction by the Novgorodians, led by Grand Duke Andrei Alexandrovich Gorodetsky.
1300 - Victory of the Moscow prince Daniil Alexandrovich over Ryazan. Annexation of Kolomna to Moscow.
1302 - Accession to Moscow of the Pereyaslav principality.
1303-1325 - Prince Yuri Daniilovich reigned in Moscow. The conquest by Prince Yuri of Moscow of the Mozhaisk specific principality (1303). The beginning of the struggle between Moscow and Tver.
1304-1319 - The reign of Grand Duke Mikhail II Yaroslavich of Tver (1319x). Construction (1310) by the Novgorodians of the Korela fortress (Kexholm, modern Priozersk). Rule in Lithuania by Grand Duke Gediminas. Accession to Lithuania of Polotsk and Turov-Pinsk principalities
1308-1326 - Peter - Metropolitan of All Rus'.
1312-1340 - reign of Khan Uzbek in the Golden Horde. Rise of the Golden Horde.
1319-1322 - The reign of Grand Duke Yuri Daniilovich of Moscow (1325x).
1322-1326 - The reign of Grand Duke Dmitry Mikhailovich the Terrible Eyes (1326x).
1323 - Construction of the Russian fortress Oreshek at the source of the Neva River.
1324 - The campaign of the Moscow prince Yuri Daniilovich with the Novgorodians to the Northern Dvina and Ustyug.
1325 - Tragic death in the Golden Horde of Yuri Daniilovich of Moscow. The victory of the Lithuanian troops over the people of Kiev and Smolensk.
1326 - Transfer of the metropolitan see from Vladimir to Moscow by Metropolitan Feognost.
1326-1328 - The reign of Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich of Tver (1339x).
1327 - Uprising in Tver against the Mongol-Tatars. The flight of Prince Alexander Mikhailovich from the punitive troops of the Mongol-Tatars.

Rus' Moscow

1328-1340 - The reign of Grand Duke Ivan I Danilovich Kalita. Transfer of the capital of Rus' from Vladimir to Moscow.
Division by Khan Uzbek of Vladimir Principality between Grand Duke Ivan Kalita and Prince Alexander Vasilievich of Suzdal.
1331 - Unification by Grand Duke Ivan Kalita of the Vladimir principality under his rule ..
1339 - Tragic death in the Golden Horde of Prince Alexander Mikhailovich of Tver. Construction of the wooden Kremlin in Moscow.
1340 - Foundation of the Trinity Monastery by Sergius of Radonezh (Trinity-Sergius Lavra) Death of Uzbek, Great Khan of the Golden Horde
1340-1353 - Board of the Grand Duke Simeon Ivanovich Proud 1345-1377 - Board of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd Gediminovich. Annexation of Kyiv, Chernigov, Volyn and Podolsk lands to Lithuania.
1342 - Accession to the Principality of Suzdal Nizhny Novgorod, Unzha and Gorodets. Formation of the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod principality.
1348-1349 - Crusades of the Swedish king Magnus I in the Novgorod lands and his defeat. Recognition by Novgorod of the independence of Pskov. Bolotovsky agreement (1348).
1353-1359 - The reign of Grand Duke Ivan II Ivanovich the Meek.
1354-1378 - Alexei - Metropolitan of All Rus'.
1355 - The division of the Suzdal principality between Andrei (Nizhny Novgorod) and Dmitry (Suzdal) Konstantinovich.
1356 - subjugation of the Principality of Bryansk by Olgerd
1358-1386 - Svyatoslav Ioannovich reigned in Smolensk and his struggle with Lithuania.
1359-1363 - The reign of the Grand Duke Dmitry Konstantinovich of Suzdal. The struggle for the great reign between Moscow and Suzdal.
1361 - the seizure of power in the Golden Horde by the temnik Mamai
1363-1389 - The reign of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy.
1363 - Olgerd's campaign to the Black Sea, his victory over the Tatars on the Blue Waters (a tributary of the Southern Bug), subjugation of Kyiv land and Podolia to Lithuania
1367 - Coming to power in Tver with the help of the Lithuanian army of Mikhail Alexandrovich Mikulinsky. Exacerbation of Moscow's relations with Tver and Lithuania. The construction of the white stone walls of the Kremlin.
1368 - Olgerd's 1st campaign against Moscow ("Lithuanian").
1370 - Olgerd's 2nd campaign against Moscow.
1375 - Dmitry Donskoy's campaign against Tver.
1377 - The defeat of the troops of Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod from the Tatar prince Arab-shah (Arapsha) on the Pyan River Mamai united the uluses west of the Volga
1378 - Victory of the Moscow-Ryazan army over the Tatar army of Begich on the Vozha River.
1380 - Mamai's campaign against Rus' and his defeat in the Battle of Kulikovo. The defeat of Mamai by Khan Tokhtamysh on the Kalka River.
1382 - Tokhtamysh's campaign against Moscow and the ruin of Moscow. The ruin of the Ryazan principality by the Moscow army.
OK. 1382 - Beginning of minting coins in Moscow..
1383 - Accession of the Vyatka land to the Nizhny Novgorod principality. Death of the former Grand Duke Dmitry Konstantinovich of Suzdal.
1385 - Judicial reform in Novgorod. Proclamation of independence from the metropolitan court. Unsuccessful campaign of Dmitry Donskoy to Murom and Ryazan. Kreva Union of Lithuania and Poland.
1386-1387 - The campaign of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy at the head of a coalition of Vladimir princes against Novgorod. Payments by Novgorod of indemnity. The defeat of the Smolensk prince Svyatoslav Ivanovich in the battle with the Lithuanians (1386).
1389 - The appearance of firearms in Rus'.
1389-1425 - The reign of Grand Duke Vasily I Dmitrievich, for the first time without the sanction of the Horde.
1392 - Accession of the Nizhny Novgorod and Murom principalities to Moscow.
1393 - Campaign of the Moscow army led by Yuri Zvenigorodsky to the Novgorod lands.
1395 - The defeat of the Golden Horde by the troops of Tamerlane. Establishment of vassal dependence of the Smolensk principality from Lithuania.
1397-1398 - The campaign of the Moscow army on the Novgorod lands. Accession of the Novgorod possessions (Bezhetsky Verkh, Vologda, Ustyug and Komi lands) to Moscow, return of the Dvina land to Novgorod. The conquest of the Novgorod army of the Dvina land.
1399-1400 - The campaign of the Moscow army led by Yuri Zvenigorodsky to the Kama against the Nizhny Novgorod princes who had taken refuge in Kazan 1399 - the victory of Khan Timur-Kutlug over the Lithuanian Grand Duke Vitovt Keistutovich.
1400-1426 - Prince Ivan Mikhailovich reigned in Tver, strengthening of Tver 1404 - capture of Smolensk and the Smolensk principality by the Lithuanian Grand Duke Vitovt Keistutovich
1402 - Accession of the Vyatka land to Moscow.
1406-1408 - The war of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily I with Vitovt Keistutovich.
1408 - Emir Yedigey's campaign against Moscow.
1410 - Death of Prince Vladimir Andreevich the Brave Battle of Grunwald. The Polish-Lithuanian-Russian army of Jogaila and Vitovt defeated the knights of the Teutonic Order
OK. 1418 - Popular uprising against the boyars in Novgorod.
OK. 1420 - Beginning of minting coins in Novgorod.
1422 - Treaty of Melno, an agreement between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland and the Teutonic Order (signed on September 27, 1422 on the shores of Lake Mielno). The order finally abandoned Samogitia and the Lithuanian Zanemanie, retaining the Klaipeda region and the Polish Pomerania.
1425-1462 - The reign of Grand Duke Vasily II Vasilyevich the Dark.
1425-1461 - The reign of Prince Boris Alexandrovich in Tver. An attempt to strengthen the meaning of Tver.
1426-1428 - Campaigns of Vitovt of Lithuania against Novgorod and Pskov.
1427 - Recognition by the Tver and Ryazan principalities of vassal dependence on Lithuania 1430 - death of Vitovt of Lithuania. The beginning of the decline of the Lithuanian great power
1425-1453 - Internecine war in Rus' between Grand Duke Vasily II the Dark and Yuri Zvenigorodsky, cousins ​​Vasily Kosy and Dmitry Shemyaka.
1430 - 1432 - the struggle in Lithuania between Svidrigail Olgerdovich, representing the "Russian" party and Sigismund, representing the "Lithuanian" party.
1428 - The raid of the Horde army on the Kostroma lands - Galich Mersky, the ruin and robbery of Kostroma, Plyos and Lukh.
1432 - Court in the Horde between Vasily II and Yuri Zvenigorodsky (at the initiative of Yuri Dmitrievich). Approval by Grand Duke Vasily II.
1433-1434 - The capture of Moscow and the great reign of Yuri Zvenigorodsky.
1437 - Ulu-Muhammed's campaign to the Zaoksky lands. The Battle of Belev on December 5, 1437 (the defeat of the Moscow army).
1439 - Basil II refuses to accept the Union of Florence with the Roman Catholic Church. The campaign of the Kazan Khan Mahmet (Ulu-Mohammed) to Moscow.
1438 - separation of the Kazan Khanate from the Golden Horde. The beginning of the collapse of the Golden Horde.
1440 - Recognition of the independence of Pskov by Kazimir of Lithuania.
1444-1445 - Kazan Khan Makhmet (Ulu-Mukhammed) raided Ryazan, Murom and Suzdal.
1443 - separation of the Crimean Khanate from the Golden Horde
1444-1448 - War of Livonia with Novgorod and Pskov. Campaign of Tverichans to the Novgorod lands.
1446 - Transfer to the Moscow service of Kasim Khan, the brother of the Kazan Khan. Blinding of Vasily II by Dmitry Shemyaka.
1448 - Election of Metropolitan Jonah at the cathedral of the Russian clergy. The signing of the 25-year peace of Pskov and Novgorod with Livonia.
1449 - Treaty of Grand Duke Vasily II the Dark with Casimir of Lithuania. Recognition of the independence of Novgorod and Pskov.
OK. 1450 - The first mention of St. George's Day.
1451 - Accession of the Suzdal principality to Moscow. The campaign of Mahmut, the son of Kichi-Mohammed, to Moscow. He burned the settlements, but the Kremlin did not take it.
1456 - The campaign of the Grand Duke Vasily II the Dark to Novgorod, the defeat of the Novgorod army under the old Rusa. Yazhelbitsky treaty between Novgorod and Moscow. The first restriction of Novgorod liberties. 1454-1466 - Poland's thirteen-year war with the Teutonic Order, which ended with the recognition of the Teutonic Order as a vassal of the Polish king.
1458 The final division of the Kyiv Metropolis into Moscow and Kyiv. The refusal of the church council in Moscow to recognize Metropolitan Gregory sent from Rome and the decision to continue to appoint a metropolitan by the will of the Grand Duke and the council without approval in Constantinople.
1459 - Subordination of Vyatka to Moscow.
1459 - Separation of the Astrakhan Khanate from the Golden Horde
1460 - Truce between Pskov and Livonia for 5 years. Recognition by Pskov of the sovereignty of Moscow.
1462 - Death of Grand Duke Vasily II the Dark.

Russian state (Russian centralized state)

1462-1505 - The reign of Grand Duke Ivan III Vasilyevich.
1462 - Termination by Ivan III of the issue of Russian coins with the name of the Khan of the Horde. Statement of Ivan III on the rejection of the khan's label for a great reign ..
1465 - Scribe's detachment reaches the Ob River.
1466-1469 - Travel of the Tver merchant Athanasius Nikitin to India.
1467-1469 - campaigns of the Moscow army against the Kazan Khanate.
1468 - Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat marches on Ryazan.
1471 - the 1st campaign of the Grand Duke Ivan III to Novgorod, the defeat of the Novgorod army on the Shelon River. The campaign of the Horde to the Moscow frontiers in the trans-Oka zone.
1472 - Accession of the Perm land (Great Perm) to Moscow.
1474 - Accession to Moscow of the Rostov principality. The conclusion of the 30-year truce between Moscow and Livonia. The conclusion of the alliance of the Crimean Khanate and Moscow against the Great Horde and Lithuania.
1475 - the capture of the Crimea by Turkish troops. The transition of the Crimean Khanate to vassalage from Turkey.
1478 - 2nd campaign of Grand Duke Ivan III against Novgorod.
Liquidation of the independence of Novgorod.
1480 - "Great standing" on the Ugra river of Russian and Tatar troops. Ivan III's refusal to pay tribute to the Horde. End of the Horde yoke.
1483 - The campaign of the Moscow governor F. Kurbsky in the Trans-Urals to the Irtysh to the city of Isker, then down the Irtysh to the Ob in the Yugra land. The conquest of the Pelym principality.
1485 - Accession of the Tver principality to Moscow.
1487-1489 - Conquest of the Kazan Khanate. The capture of Kazan (1487), the adoption by Ivan III of the title "Grand Duke of Bulgar". A protege of Moscow, Khan Mohammed-Emin, was elevated to the Kazan throne. Introduction of the local system of land use.
1489 - A campaign against Vyatka and the final annexation of the Vyatka land to Moscow. Annexation of the Arsk land (Udmurtia).
1491 - "Campaign in the Wild Field" of the 60,000-strong Russian army to help the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey against the khans of the Great Horde Kazan Khan Muhammad-Emin joins the campaign to hit the flank
1492 - Superstitious expectations of the "end of the world" in connection with the end (March 1) of the 7th millennium "from the creation of the world". September - the decision of the Moscow Church Council to postpone the date of the beginning of the year to September 1. The first use of the title "autocrat" in a message to the Grand Duke Ivan III Vasilyevich. Foundation of the Ivangorod fortress on the river Narva.
1492-1494 - the 1st war of Ivan III with Lithuania. Accession of Vyazma and Verkhovsky principalities to Moscow.
1493 - Treaty of Ivan III on an alliance with Denmark against the Hansa and Sweden. Danish cession of its possessions in Finland in exchange for the termination of the Hanseatic trade in Novgorod.
1495 - separation of the Siberian Khanate from the Golden Horde. The collapse of the Golden Horde
1496-1497 - Moscow's war with Sweden.
1496-1502 - rule in Kazan by Abdyl-Latif (Abdul-Latif) under the protectorate of Grand Duke Ivan III
1497 - Sudebnik of Ivan III. The first Russian embassy in Istanbul
1499 -1501 - Campaign of the Moscow governors F. Kurbsky and P. Ushaty to the Northern Trans-Urals and to the lower reaches of the Ob.
1500-1503 - the 2nd war of Ivan III with Lithuania for the Verkhovsky principalities. Accession to Moscow of Seversk land.
1501 - Formation of a coalition of Lithuania, Livonia and the Great Horde, directed against Moscow, Crimea and Kazan. On August 30, the 20,000-strong army of the Great Horde began the devastation of the Kursk land, approaching Rylsk, and by November it had reached the Bryansk and Novgorod-Seversky lands. The Tatars captured the city of Novgorod-Seversky, but did not go further, to the Moscow lands.
1501-1503 - Russia's war with the Livonian Order.
1502 - The final defeat of the Great Horde by the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, the transfer of its territory to the Crimean Khanate
1503 - Accession to Moscow of half of the Ryazan principality (including Tula). A truce with Lithuania and the annexation of Chernigov, Bryansk and Gomel (almost a third of the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania) to Russia. Truce between Russia and Livonia.
1505 - Anti-Russian speech in Kazan. The beginning of the Kazan-Russian war (1505-1507).
1505-1533 - The reign of Grand Duke Vasily III Ivanovich.
1506 - Unsuccessful siege of Kazan.
1507 - The first raid of the Crimean Tatars on the southern borders of Russia.
1507-1508 - War between Russia and Lithuania.
1508 - Conclusion of a peace treaty with Sweden for 60 years.
1510 - Liquidation of the independence of Pskov.
1512-1522 - War between Russia and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
1517-1519 - Publishing activity of Francysk Skaryna in Prague. Skaryna publishes a translation from Church Slavonic into Russian - "Russian Bible".
1512 - "Eternal peace" with Kazan. The unsuccessful siege of Smolensk.
1513 - Accession to the Moscow Principality of the Volotsk inheritance.
1514 - The capture of the Grand Duke Vasily III Ivanovich Smolensk by the troops and the annexation of the Smolensk lands.
1515, April - Death of the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray, a longtime ally of Ivan III;
1519 - Campaign of the Russian troops to Vilna (Vilnius).
1518 - The coming to power in Kazan of Moscow's protege Khan (Tsar) Shah Ali
1520 - Conclusion of a truce with Lithuania for 5 years.
1521 - Campaign of the Crimean and Kazan Tatars led by Mohammed-Girey (Magmet-Girey), Khan of Crimea and Kazan Khan Saip-Girey (Sahib-Girey) to Moscow. The siege of Moscow by the Crimeans. Full accession to Moscow of the Ryazan principality. Seizure of the throne of the Kazan Khanate by the dynasty of Crimean khans Girey (Khan Sahib-Girey).
1522 - Arrest of Novgorod-Seversky prince Vasily Shemyachich. Accession to Moscow Novgorod-Seversky Principality.
1523-1524 - 2nd Kazan-Russian war.
1523 - Anti-Russian performances in Kazan. The campaign of Russian troops in the lands of the Kazan Khanate. Building on the river Sura fortress Vasilsursk. Capture of Astrakhan by the Crimean troops..
1524 - New Russian campaign against Kazan. Peace negotiations between Moscow and Kazan. Proclamation of Safa-Girey as the Kazan tsar.
1529 - Russian-Kazan peace treaty Siege of Vienna by the Turks
1530 - The campaign of the Russian army to Kazan.
1533-1584 - The reign of the Grand Duke and Tsar (since 1547) Ivan IV Vasilyevich the Terrible.
1533-1538 - Regency of the mother of Grand Duke Ivan IV Vasilievich Elena Glinskaya (1538+).
1538-1547 - Boyar rule under the juvenile Grand Duke Ivan IV Vasilyevich (until 1544 - Shuisky, from 1544 - Glinsky)
1544-1546 - Accession to Russia of the lands of the Mari and Chuvash, a campaign in the lands of the Kazan Khanate.
1547 - Acceptance of the royal title by the Grand Duke Ivan IV Vasilyevich (marriage to the kingdom). Fires and riots in Moscow.
1547-1549 - The political program of Ivan Peresvetov: the creation of a permanent archery army, the reliance of royal power on the nobles, the capture of the Kazan Khanate and the distribution of its lands to the nobles.
1547-1550 - Unsuccessful campaigns (1547-1548, 1549-1550) of Russian troops against Kazan Campaign of the Crimean Khan against Astrakhan. The erection in Astrakhan of the protege of the Crimea
1549 - The first news about the Cossack towns on the Don. Formation of the embassy order. Convocation of the first Zemsky Sobor.
1550 - Sudebnik (code of laws) of Ivan the Terrible.
1551 - "Stoglavy" Cathedral. Approval of the reform program (with the exception of the secularization of church lands and the introduction of a secular court for clerics). 3rd Kazan campaign of Ivan the Terrible.
1552 - 4th (Great) campaign of Tsar Ivan IV Vasilievich to Kazan. Unsuccessful campaign of the Crimean troops to Tula. Siege and capture of Kazan. Liquidation of the Kazan Khanate.
1552-1558 - Subjugation of the territory of the Kazan Khanate.
1553 - Unsuccessful campaign of the 120,000th army of Prince Yusuf of the Nogai Horde against Moscow.
1554 - 1st campaign of Russian governors against Astrakhan.
1555 - Cancellation of feeding (completion of the lip and zemstvo reform) Recognition by the Khan of the Siberian Khanate Yediger of vassal dependence on Russia
1555-1557 - War between Russia and Sweden.
1555-1560 - Campaigns of Russian governors in the Crimea.
1556 - The capture of Astrakhan and the annexation of the Astrakhan Khanate to Russia. Transition under the power of Russia of the entire Volga region. Adoption of the "Code of Service" - the regulation of the service of the nobility and the norms of local salaries. The collapse of the Nogai Horde into the Great, Small and Altyul Horde
1557 - The oath of the ambassadors of the ruler of Kabarda for allegiance to the Russian Tsar. Recognition by Prince Ismail of the Great Nogai Horde of vassal dependence on Russia. The transition of the western and central Bashkir tribes (subjects of the Nogai Horde) to the citizenship of the Russian Tsar.
1558-1583 - Livonian war of Russia for access to the Baltic Sea and for the lands of Livonia.
1558 - Capture of Narva and Derpt by Russian troops.
1559 - Truce with Livonia. Campaign D. Ardashev to the Crimea. The transition of Livonia under the protectorate of Poland.
1560 - The victory of the Russian army at Ermes, the capture of the castle of Fellin. A. Kurbsky's victory over the Livonians near Wenden. The fall of the government of the Chosen One, the disgrace of A. Adasheva. The transition of Northern Livonia to the citizenship of Sweden.
1563 - Capture of Polotsk by Tsar Ivan IV Seizure of power in the Siberian Khanate by Kuchum. Breaking vassal relations with Russia
1564 - Edition of the "Apostle" by Ivan Fedorov.
1565 - The introduction of the oprichnina by Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible. The beginning of the oprichnina persecution 1563-1570 - Northern Seven-year Danish-Swedish war for dominance in the Baltic Sea. The Peace of Stettin in 1570 basically restored the status quo.
1566 - Completion of the construction of the Great Security Line (Ryazan-Tula-Kozelsk and Alatyr-Temnikov-Shatsk-Ryazhsk). The city of Orel was founded.
1567 - Union of Russia with Sweden. The construction of the Terki fortress (Tersky town) at the confluence of the Terek and Sunzha rivers. The beginning of Russia's advance into the Caucasus.
1568-1569 - Mass executions in Moscow. Destruction by order of Ivan the Terrible of the last appanage prince Andrei Vladimirovich Staritsky. The conclusion of peace agreements between Turkey and the Crimea with Poland and Lithuania. The beginning of the openly hostile policy of the Ottoman Empire towards Russia
1569 - Campaign of the Crimean Tatars and Turks against Astrakhan, unsuccessful siege of Astrakhan Union of Lublin - Formation of a single Polish-Lithuanian state Rzeczpospolita
1570 - Ivan the Terrible's punitive campaigns against Tver, Novgorod and Pskov. The ruin of the Ryazan land by the Crimean Khan Davlet-Girey. The beginning of the Russian-Swedish war. Unsuccessful siege of Reval Formation of the vassal kingdom of Magnus (brother of the king of Denmark) in Livonia.
1571 - Campaign of the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray to Moscow. Capture and burning of Moscow. Flight of Ivan the Terrible to Serpukhov, Aleksandrov Sloboda, then to Rostov..
1572 - Negotiations between Ivan the Terrible and Devlet Giray. A new campaign of the Crimean Tatars against Moscow. The victory of the governor M.I. Vorotynsky on the river Lopasna. Retreat of Khan Devlet Giray. The abolition of the oprichnina by Ivan the Terrible. The execution of the leaders of the oprichnina.
1574 - Foundation of the city of Ufa;.
1575-1577 - Campaigns of Russian troops in Northern Livonia and Livonia.
1575-1576 - Nominal reign of Simeon Bekbulatovich (1616+), Khan of Kasimov, proclaimed by Ivan the Terrible "Grand Duke of All Rus'".
1576 - Foundation of the city of Samara. Capture of a number of strongholds in Livonia (Pernov (Pyarnu), Wenden, Paidu, etc.) Election of the Turkish protege Stefan Batory to the Polish throne (1586+).
1577 - Unsuccessful siege of Reval.
1579 - Stefan Batory captures Polotsk, Velikie Luki.
1580s - The first news about the Cossack towns on Yaik.
1580 - the 2nd campaign of Stefan Batory to the Russian lands and the capture of Velikiye Luki by him. Capture of Korela by the Swedish commander Delagardie. The decision of the church council to prohibit the acquisition of land by churches and monasteries.
1581 - The capture of the Russian fortresses of Narva and Ivangorod by the Swedish troops. Cancellation of St. George's Day. The first mention of the "reserved" years. The murder by Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible of his eldest son Ivan.
1581-1582 - Siege of Pskov by Stefan Batory and its defense by I. Shuisky.
1581-1585 - Campaign of the Cossack chieftain Yermak to Siberia and the defeat of the Siberian Khanate of Kuchum.
1582 - Yam-Zapolsky truce of Russia with the Commonwealth for 10 years. Passage of Livonia and Polotsk into the possession of Poland. The resettlement of a part of the Don Cossacks in the tract Combs to the North. Caucasus Bull of Pope Gregory XIII on the calendar reform and the introduction of the Gregorian calendar.
1582-1584 - Mass uprisings of the peoples of the Middle Volga region (Tatars, Mari, Chuvashs, Udmurts) against Moscow Introduction of a new calendar style in Catholic countries (Italy, Spain, Poland, France, etc.). "Calendar disorders" in Riga (1584).
1583 - Plyussky truce of Russia with Sweden for 10 years with the concession of Narva, Yam, Koporye, Ivangorod. The end of the Livonian War, which lasted (intermittently) for 25 years.
1584-1598 - The reign of Tsar Fedor Ioannovich 1586 - the election of the king of the Commonwealth of the Swedish prince Sigismund III Vaz (1632+)
1586-1618 - Accession of Western Siberia to Russia. Foundation of the city of Tyumen (1586), Tobolsk (1587), Berezov (1593), Obdorsk (1595), Tomsk (1604).
OK. 1598 - death of Khan Kuchum. The power of his son Ali is preserved in the upper reaches of the rivers Ishim, Irtysh, Tobol.
1587 - Resumption of relations between Georgia and Russia.
1589 - Foundation of the Tsaritsyn fortress near the portage between the Don and the Volga. Establishment of the Patriarchate in Russia.
1590 - Foundation of the city of Saratov.
1590-1593 - Successful war between Russia and Sweden 1592 - King of the Commonwealth Sigismund III Vaz came to power in Sweden. The beginning of the struggle of Sigismund with another contender for the throne and relative Charles Vasa (the future king of Sweden Charles IX)
1591 - The death of Tsarevich Dmitry Ivanovich in Uglich, the uprising of the townspeople.
1592-1593 - Decree on the exemption from duties and taxes of the lands of landowners who served in the military and lived on their estates (the appearance of "white lands"). Decree on the prohibition of peasant output. The final attachment of the peasants to the land.
1595 - Tyavzinsky peace with Sweden. The return of the cities of Yam, Koporye, Ivangorod, Oreshek, Nyenshan to Russia. Recognition of Swedish control over Russia's Baltic trade.
1597 - Decree on bonded serfs (their condition for life without the possibility of paying the debt, termination of service with the death of the master). Decree on a five-year term for the investigation of fugitive peasants (lesson years).
1598 - Death of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich. Termination of the Rurik dynasty. Acceptance of the Babinovskaya road as the official government route to Siberia (instead of the old Cherdynskaya road).

Time of Troubles

1598-1605 - The reign of Tsar Boris Godunov.
1598 - Beginning of active construction of cities in Siberia.
1601-1603 - Famine in Russia. Partial restoration of St. George's Day and limited output of peasants.
1604 - Construction by a detachment from Surgut at the request of the prince of the Tomsk Tatars, the fortress of Tomsk. The appearance in Poland of the impostor False Dmitry, his campaign at the head of the Cossacks and mercenaries to Moscow.
1605 - The reign of Tsar Fyodor Borisovich Godunov (1605x).
1605-1606 - The reign of the impostor False Dmitry I
Preparation of a new Code allowing the peasant output.
1606 - Conspiracy of the boyars led by Prince V.I. Shuisky. The overthrow and murder of False Dmitry I. The proclamation of V.I. Shuisky as king.
1606-1610 - The reign of Tsar Vasily IV Ivanovich Shuisky.
1606-1607 - The uprising of I.I. Bolotnikov and Lyapunov under the motto "Tsar Dmitry!".
1606 - The appearance of the impostor False Dmitry II.
1607 - Decrees on "voluntary serfs", on a 15-year term for detecting fugitive peasants and on sanctions for accepting and holding fugitive peasants. Cancellation of the reforms of Godunov and False Dmitry I.
1608 - Victory of False Dmitry II over government troops under the leadership of D.I. Shuisky near Bolkhov.
Creation of the Tushino camp near Moscow.
1608-1610 - Unsuccessful siege of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery by Polish and Lithuanian troops.
1609 - Appeal for help (February) against False Dmitry II to the Swedish king Charles IX at the cost of territorial concessions. The advance of the Swedish troops to Novgorod. The entry of the Polish king Sigismund III into the Russian state (September). Beginning of the Polish intervention in Russia. Naming in the Tushino camp of Metropolitan Filaret (Fyodor Nikitich Romanov) as patriarch. Confusion in the Tushino camp. Flight of False Dmitry II.
1609-1611 - Siege of Smolensk by Polish troops.
1610 - Battle of Klushino (24.06) Russian and Polish troops. Liquidation of the Tushino camp. A new attempt by False Dmitry II to organize a campaign against Moscow. The death of False Dmitry II. Removal of Vasily Shuisky from the throne. Entry of the Poles to Moscow.
1610-1613 - Interregnum ("Seven Boyars").
1611 - The defeat of Lyapunov's militia. The fall of Smolensk after a two-year siege. The capture of Patriarch Filaret, V.I. Shuisky and others.
1611-1617 - Swedish intervention in Russia;.
1612 - Gathering of the new militia of Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky. The liberation of Moscow, the defeat of the Polish troops. The death of the former Tsar Vasily Shuisky in captivity in Poland.
1613 - Convocation of the Zemsky Sobor in Moscow. Election to the kingdom of Mikhail Romanov.
1613-1645 - The reign of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov.
1615-1616 - Elimination of the Cossack movement of Ataman Balovnya.
1617 - Stolbovsky peace with Sweden. The return of Novgorod lands to Russia, the loss of access to the Baltic - the cities of Korela (Kexholm), Koporye, Oreshek, Yam, Ivangorod went to Sweden.
1618 - Deulino truce with Poland. Transfer of Smolensk lands (including Smolensk), except for Vyazma, Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversky lands with 29 cities to Poland. Renunciation of Prince Vladislav of Poland from claims to the Russian throne. Election of Filaret (Fyodor Nikitich Romanov) as Patriarch.
1619-1633 - Patriarchate and reign of Filaret (Fyodor Nikitich Romanov).
1620-1624 - Beginning of Russian penetration into Eastern Siberia. Hike to the Lena River and up the Lena to the land of the Buryats.
1621 - Establishment of the Siberian diocese.
1632 - Organization of "foreign system" troops in the Russian army. Founding by A. Vinius of the first ironworks in Tula. The war between Russia and Poland for the return of Smolensk. Founding of the Yakut prison (at the present site since 1643) 1630-1634 - Swedish period Thirty Years' War, when the Swedish army, having invaded (under the command of Gustav II Adolf) Germany, won victories at Breitenfeld (1631), Lützen (1632), but was defeated at Nördlingen (1634).
1633-1638 - Campaign of the Cossacks I.Perfilyev and I.Rebrov from the lower reaches of the Lena to the rivers Yana and Indigirka 1635-1648 - the Franco-Swedish period of the Thirty Years' War, when France's entry into the war determined the clear superiority of the anti-Habsburg coalition. As a result, the plans of the Habsburgs failed, political hegemony passed to France. Ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.
1636 - Foundation of the Tambov fortress.
1637 - The capture of the Turkish fortress of Azov by the Don Cossacks at the mouth of the Don.
1638 - Hetman Ya. Ostranin, who rebelled against the Poles, crosses over to Russia with his army. The beginning of the formation of suburban Ukraine (the regions of Kharkov, Kursk, etc. between the Don and the Dnieper)
1638-1639 - Campaign of the Cossacks P. Ivanov from Yakutsk to the upper reaches of the Yana and Indigirka.
1639-1640 - Campaign of the Cossacks I. Moskvitin from Yakutsk to the Lamsky (Okhotsk Sea, access to the Pacific Ocean. Completion of the latitudinal crossing of Siberia, begun by Yermak.
1639 - Founding of the first glass factory in Russia.
1641 - Successful defense of the Azov fortress by the Don Cossacks at the mouth of the Don ("Azov Seat").
1642 - Termination of the defense of the fortress of Azov. The decision of the Zemsky Sobor on the return of Azov to Turkey. Formation of the nobility of the military class.
1643 - Liquidation of the Kodsky principality of the Khanty on the right bank of the Ob. Naval campaign of the Cossacks led by M. Starodukhin and D. Zdyryan from Indigirka to Kolyma. Exit of Russian servicemen and industrial people to Baikal (K.Ivanov's campaign) Discovery of Sakhalin by the Dutch navigator M.de Vries, who mistook Sakhalin for part of Hokkaido..
1643-1646 - V. Poyarkov's campaign from Yakutsk to Aldan, Zeya, Amur to the Sea of ​​Okhotsk.
1645-1676 - The reign of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov.
1646 - Replacement of direct taxes with a tax on salt. Abolition of the salt tax and return to direct taxes due to mass unrest. Census of draft and partially non-draft population.
1648-1654 - Construction of the Simbirsk notch line (Simbirsk-Karsun-Saransk-Tambov). Construction of the Simbirsk fortress (1648).
1648 - Sailing of S. Dezhnev from the mouth of the Kolyma River to the mouth of the Anadyr River through the strait separating Eurasia from America. "Salt riot" in Moscow. Uprisings of townspeople in Kursk, Yelets, Tomsk, Ustyug, etc. Concessions to the nobles: convening a Zemsky Sobor to adopt a new Code, abolishing the collection of arrears. The beginning of the uprising of B. Khmelnitsky against the Poles in Ukraine ..
1649 - Cathedral Code of Alexei Mikhailovich. The final formalization of serfdom (the introduction of an indefinite investigation of the fugitives), the elimination of "white settlements" (feudal estates in cities exempted from taxes and duties). Legalization of the search for a denunciation of intent against the tsar or his insult ("The word and deed of the sovereign") Deprivation of the British trade privileges at the request of the Russian merchants ..
1649-1652 - E.Khabarov's campaigns against the Amur and the Daurian land. The first clashes between the Russians and the Manchus. Creation of territorial regiments in Sloboda Ukraine (Ostrogozhsky, Akhtyrsky, Sumy, Kharkov).
1651 - Beginning of church reform by Patriarch Nikon. Foundation of the German Quarter in Moscow.
1651-1660 - M. Stadukhin's campaign along the Anadyr-Okhotsk-Yakutsk route. Establishing a connection between the northern and southern routes to the Sea of ​​Okhotsk.
1652-1656 - Construction of the Zakamskaya notch line (Bely Yar - Menzelinsk).
1652-1667 - Clashes between secular and ecclesiastical authorities.
1653 - The decision of the Zemsky Sobor on the adoption of citizenship of Ukraine and the beginning of the war with Poland. Adoption of a trade charter regulating trade (a single trade duty, a ban on collecting travel fees in the possessions of secular and spiritual feudal lords, limiting peasant trade to trade from wagons, increasing the duties of foreign merchants).
1654-1667 - Russian-Polish war for Ukraine.
1654 - Approval of Nikon's reforms by the church council. The emergence of the Old Believers led by Archpriest Avvakum, the beginning of the split of the church. Approval of the Pereyaslav Rada of the Zaporizhzhya Army Treaty (01/08/1654) on the transition of Ukraine (Poltava, Kiev, Chernihiv, Podolia, Volhynia) to Russia while maintaining broad autonomy (inviolability of the rights of the Cossacks, election of the hetman, independent foreign policy, lack of jurisdiction over Moscow, payment of tribute without interference Moscow collectors). Capture by Russian troops of Polotsk, Mogilev, Vitebsk, Smolensk
1655 - The capture of Minsk, Vilna, Grodno by the Russian troops, access to Brest Sweden's invasion of Poland. Beginning of the First Northern War
1656 - Capture of Nyenschantz and Derpt. Siege of Riga. Armistice with Poland and declaration of war on Sweden.
1656-1658 - Russian-Swedish war for access to the Baltic Sea.
1657 - Death of B. Khmelnitsky. Election of I. Vyhovsky as Hetman of Ukraine.
1658 - Nikon's open conflict with Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The beginning of the issuance of copper money (the payment of salaries in copper money and the collection of taxes in silver). The termination of negotiations with Poland, the resumption of the Russian-Polish war. Invasion of Russian troops into Ukraine Gadyach agreement between the hetman of Ukraine Vyhovsky and Poland on the accession of Ukraine as an autonomous "principality of Russia" to Poland.
1659 - The defeat of Russian troops near Konotop from the hetman of Ukraine I. Vygovsky and the Crimean Tatars. Refusal of the Pereyaslav Rada to approve the Treaty of Gadyach. Displacement of Hetman I. Vyhovsky and election of Hetman of Ukraine Y. Khmelnitsky. Approval by the Rada of a new treaty with Russia. The defeat of Russian troops in Belarus, the betrayal of Hetman Y. Khmelnitsky. The split of the Ukrainian Cossacks into supporters of Moscow and supporters of Poland.
1661 - Treaty of Cardis between Russia and Sweden. Russia's renunciation of the conquests of 1656, return to the conditions of the Stolbovsky Peace of 1617 1660-1664 - Austro-Turkish war, division of the lands of the Kingdom of Hungary.
1662 - "Copper Riot" in Moscow.
1663 - Foundation of the city of Penza. The split of Ukraine into hetmanships of the Right-bank and Left-bank Ukraine
1665 - A. Ordin-Nashchekin's reforms in Pskov: the establishment of merchant companies, the introduction of elements of self-government. Strengthening Moscow's positions in Ukraine.
1665-1677 - P. Doroshenko's hetmanship in the Right-Bank Ukraine.
1666 - Deprivation of Nikon of the rank of patriarch and condemnation of the Old Believers by the church council. The construction by the rebellious Ilim Cossacks of a new Albazinsky prison on the Amur (since 1672, it was accepted into Russian citizenship) ..
1667 - Construction of ships for the Caspian flotilla. New trading charter. Archpriest Avvakum's exile to the Pustozersky jail for "heresy" (criticism) of the rulers of the country. A. Ordin-Nashchekin at the head of the Ambassadorial order (1667-1671). The conclusion of the Andrusov truce with Poland by A. Ordin-Nashchekin. The implementation of the division of Ukraine between Poland and Russia (the transition of the Left-Bank Ukraine under the rule of Russia).
1667-1676 - Solovetsky uprising of schismatic monks ("Solovki sitting").
1669 - Transfer of Hetman of the Right-bank Ukraine P. Doroshenko under Turkish rule.
1670-1671 - Rebellion of peasants and Cossacks led by the Don ataman S. Razin.
1672 - The first self-immolation of schismatics (in Nizhny Novgorod). The first professional theater in Russia. Decree on the distribution of "wild fields" to servicemen and clerics in the "Ukrainian" regions. Russian-Polish agreement on helping Poland in the war with Turkey 1672-1676 - the war between the Commonwealth and Ottoman Empire for Right-Bank Ukraine..
1673 - Campaign of Russian troops and Don Cossacks to Azov.
1673-1675 - Campaigns of Russian troops against hetman P. Doroshenko (campaigns against Chigirin), defeat by Turkish and Crimean Tatar troops.
1675-1678 - Russian embassy mission to Beijing. The refusal of the Qin government to consider Russia as an equal partner.
1676-1682 - The reign of Tsar Fedor Alekseevich Romanov.
1676-1681 - Russian-Turkish war for the Right-bank Ukraine.
1676 - Occupation of the capital of Right-bank Ukraine Chigirin by Russian troops. Zhuravsky peace of Poland and Turkey: Türkiye receives Podolia, P. Doroshenko is recognized as a vassal of Turkey
1677 - The victory of Russian troops over the Turks near Chigirin.
1678 - Russian-Polish treaty to extend the truce with Poland for 13 years. Agreement of the parties on the preparation of "eternal peace". The capture of Chigirin by the Turks
1679-1681 - Tax reform. Transition to household taxation instead of field taxation.
1681-1683 - Seitov uprising in Bashkiria due to forced Christianization. The suppression of the uprising with the help of the Kalmyks.
1681 - The abolition of the Kasimov kingdom. Bakhchisaray peace treaty between Russia and Turkey and the Crimean Khanate. Establishment of the Russian-Turkish border along the Dnieper. Recognition for Russia of the Left-Bank Ukraine and Kyiv.
1682-1689 - Simultaneous reign of the princess-ruler Sofya Alekseevna and tsars Ivan V Alekseevich and Peter I Alekseevich.
1682-1689 - Armed conflict between Russia and China on the Amur.
1682 - Abolition of localism. The beginning of the Streltsy rebellion in Moscow. Establishment of the government of Princess Sophia. Suppression of the Streltsy rebellion. The execution of Avvakum and his supporters in Pustozersk.
1683-1684 - Construction of the Syzran notch line (Syzran-Penza).
1686 - "Eternal Peace" between Russia and Poland. Accession of Russia to the anti-Turkish coalition of Poland, the Holy Empire and Venice (Holy League) with the obligation of Russia to make a campaign against the Crimean Khanate.
1686-1700 - War between Russia and Turkey. Crimean campaigns by V. Golitsyn.
1687 - Foundation of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow.
1689 - Construction of the Verkhneudinskaya fortress (modern Ulan-Ude) at the confluence of the Uda and Selenga rivers. Treaty of Nerchinsk between Russia and China. Establishment of the border along the Argun - Stanovoy Ridge - the Uda River to the Sea of ​​​​Okhotsk. The overthrow of the government of Princess Sofya Alekseevna.
1689-1696 - Simultaneous reign of Tsars Ivan V Alekseevich and Peter I Alekseevich.
1695 - Establishment of the Preobrazhensky order. The first Azov campaign of Peter I. The organization of "kuppanstvo" to finance the construction of the fleet, the creation of a shipyard on the Voronezh River.
1695-1696 - Uprisings of the local and Cossack population in Irkutsk, Krasnoyarsk and Transbaikalia.
1696 - Death of Tsar Ivan V Alekseevich.

Russian empire

1689 - 1725 - The reign of Peter I.
1695 - 1696 - Azov campaigns.
1699 - City government reform.
1700 - Russian - Turkish armistice agreement.
1700 - 1721 - Great Northern War.
1700, November 19 - Battle of Narva.
1703 - Foundation of St. Petersburg.
1705 - 1706 - Uprising in Astrakhan.
1705 - 1711 - Uprising in Bashkiria.
1708 - Provincial reform of Peter I.
1709, June 27 - Battle of Poltava.
1711 - Establishment of the Senate. Prut campaign of Peter I.
1711 - 1765 - M.V. Lomonosov.
1716 - Military regulations of Peter I.
1718 - Establishment of the college. Start of the poll census.
1721 - Establishment of the Chief Magistrate of the Synod. Decree on Possession Peasants.
1721 - Peter I took the title of EMPEROR OF ALL-RUSSIAN. RUSSIA BECAME AN EMPIRE.
1722 - "Table of Ranks".
1722 -1723 - Russian - Iranian war.
1727 - 1730 - The reign of Peter II.
1730 - 1740 - The reign of Anna Ioannovna.
1730 - Repeal of the law of 1714 on uniform inheritance. Acceptance of Russian citizenship by the Younger Horde in Kazakhstan.
1735 - 1739 - Russian - Turkish war.
1735 - 1740 - Uprising in Bashkiria.
1741 - 1761 - The reign of Elizabeth Petrovna.
1742 - Discovery of the northern tip of Asia by Chelyuskin.
1750 - Opening of the first Russian theater in Yaroslavl (F.G. Volkova).
1754 - Abolition of internal customs.
1755 - Foundation of Moscow University.
1757 - 1761 - Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War.
1757 - Establishment of the Academy of Arts.
1760 - 1764 - Mass unrest of attached peasants in the Urals.
1761 - 1762 - The reign of Peter III.
1762 - Manifesto "on the freedom of the nobility".
1762 - 1796 - The reign of Catherine II.
1763 - 1765 - Invention of I.I. Polzunov steam engine.
1764 - Secularization of church lands.
1765 - Decree on permission for landowners to exile peasants to hard labor. Establishment of the Free Economic Society.
1767 - Decree forbidding peasants to complain about landowners.
1767 - 1768 - "Commission on the Code".
1768 - 1769 - "Koliyivshchyna".
1768 - 1774 - Russian - Turkish war.
1771 - "Plague riot" in Moscow.
1772 - First partition of Poland.
1773 - 1775 - Peasant war led by E.I. Pugachev.
1775 - Provincial reform. Manifesto on freedom of organization of industrial enterprises.
1783 - Accession of the Crimea. Georgievsky treaty on the protectorate of Russia over Eastern Georgia.
1783 - 1797 - Srym Datov's uprising in Kazakhstan.
1785 - Letter of grant to the nobility and cities.
1787 - 1791 - Russian - Turkish war.
1788 -1790 - Russian - Swedish war.
1790 - Publication of "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" by A.N. Radishchev.
1793 - The second partition of Poland.
1794 - Uprising in Poland led by T. Kosciuszko.
1795 - Third partition of Poland.
1796 - 1801 - The reign of Paul I.
1798 - 1800 - Mediterranean campaign of the Russian fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakov.
1799 - Suvorov's Italian and Swiss campaigns.
1801 - 1825 - The reign of Alexander I.
1803 - Decree "on free cultivators".
1804 - 1813 - War with Iran.
1805 - Creation of an alliance of Russia with England and Austria against France.
1806 - 1812 - War with Turkey.
1806 - 1807 - Creation of an alliance with England and Prussia against France.
1807 - Peace of Tilsit.
1808 - War with Sweden. Accession of Finland.
1810 - Creation of the State Council.
1812 - Accession of Bessarabia to Russia.
1812, June - The invasion of the Napoleonic army into Russia. The beginning of the Patriotic War. August, 26th - battle of Borodino. September 2 - leaving Moscow. December - The expulsion of the Napoleonic army from Russia.
1813 - Accession to Russia of Dagestan and part of Northern Azerbaijan.
1813 - 1814 - Foreign campaigns of the Russian army.
1815 - Congress in Vienna. The Duchy of Warsaw is part of Russia.
1816 - Creation of the first secret organization of the Decembrists "Union of Salvation".
1819 - Rebellion of military settlers in the city of Chuguev.
1819 - 1821 - Round-the-world expedition to Antarctica F.F. Bellingshausen.
1820 - Unrest of soldiers in the tsarist army. Creation of "welfare union".
1821 - 1822 - Creation of the "Southern secret society" and "Northern secret society".
1825 - 1855 - The reign of Nicholas I.
1825, December 14 - Decembrist uprising on Senate Square.
1828 - Accession to Russia of Eastern Armenia and all of Northern Azerbaijan.
1830 - Military uprising in Sevastopol.
1831 - Rebellion in Staraya Russa.
1843 - 1851 - Construction of the railway between Moscow and St. Petersburg.
1849 - Assistance to the Russian army in suppressing the uprising of the Hungarians in Austria.
1853 - Creation by Herzen in London of the Free Russian Printing House.
1853 - 1856 - Crimean War.
1854, September - 1855, August - Defense of Sevastopol.
1855 - 1881 - The reign of Alexander II.
1856 - Treaty of Paris.
1858 - The Aigun border treaty with China was concluded.
1859 - 1861 - The revolutionary situation in Russia.
1860 - Beijing border treaty with China. Foundation of Vladivostok.
February 19, 1861 - Manifesto on the emancipation of peasants from serfdom.
1863 - 1864 - Uprising in Poland, Lithuania and Belarus.
1864 - The entire Caucasus became part of Russia. Zemstvo and judicial reforms.
1868 - The Khanate of Kokand and the Emirate of Bukhara recognize political dependence on Russia.
1870 - City government reform.
1873 - Khan of Khiva recognized political dependence on Russia.
1874 - Introduction of universal conscription.
1876 ​​- Liquidation of the Kokand Khanate. Creation of a secret revolutionary organization "Land and Freedom".
1877 - 1878 - Russian - Turkish war.
1878 - Treaty of San Stefano.
1879 - The split of "Land and freedom". Creation of the "Black Repartition".
1881, March 1 - Assassination of Alexander II.
1881 - 1894 - The reign of Alexander III.
1891 - 1893 - Conclusion of the Franco - Russian Union.
1885 - Morozov strike.
1894 - 1917 - The reign of Nicholas II.
1900 - 1903 - Economic crisis.
1904 - Murder of Plehve.
1904 - 1905 - Russian - Japanese war.
1905, January 9 - "Bloody Sunday".
1905 - 1907 - The first Russian revolution.
1906, April 27 - July 8 - First State Duma.
1906 - 1911 - Stolypin's agrarian reform.
1907, February 20 - June 2 - Second State Duma.
1907, November 1 - 1912, June 9 - Third State Duma.
1907 - Creation of the Entente.
1911, September 1 - The assassination of Stolypin.
1913 - Celebration of the 300th anniversary of the Romanov dynasty.
1914 - 1918 - First World War.
1917, February 18 - Strike at the Putilov factory. March 1 - creation of the Provisional Government. March 2 - abdication of Nicholas II from the throne. June - July - the crisis of power. August - Kornilov rebellion. September 1 - Russia is declared a republic. October - the seizure of power by the Bolsheviks.
1917, March 2 - Formation of the Provisional Government.
1917, March 3 - Abdication of Mikhail Alexandrovich.
1917, March 2 - Establishment of the Provisional Government.

Russian Republic and RSFSR

1918, July 17 - the assassination of the deposed Emperor and the royal family.
1917, July 3 - July performances of the Bolsheviks.
1917, July 24 - Announcement of the composition of the second coalition of the Provisional Government.
1917, August 12 - Convocation of the State Conference.
1917, September 1 - Declaration of Russia as a republic.
1917, September 20 - Formation of the Pre-Parliament.
1917, September 25 - Announcement of the composition of the third coalition of the Provisional Government.
1917, October 25 - Appeal of V. I. Lenin on the transfer of power to the Military Revolutionary Committee.
1917, October 26 - Arrest of members of the Provisional Government.
1917, October 26 - Decrees on peace and land.
1917, December 7 - Establishment of the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission.
1918, January 5 - Opening of the Constituent Assembly.
1918 - 1922 - Civil War.
1918, March 3 - Brest Peace.
1918, May - The uprising of the Czechoslovak Corps.
1919, November - Defeat of A.V. Kolchak.
1920, April - Transfer of power in the Volunteer Army from A.I. Denikin to P.N. Wrangel.
1920, November - The defeat of the army of P.N. Wrangel.

1921, March 18 - Signing of the Peace of Riga with Poland.
1921 - X Party Congress, resolution "On the unity of the party."
1921 - Beginning of the NEP.
1922, December 29 - Union Treaty.
1922 - "Philosophical steamboat"
1924, January 21 - Death of V. I. Lenin
1924, January 31 - Constitution of the USSR.
1925 - XVI Party Congress
1925 - Adoption of a resolution of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) regarding the party's policy in the field of culture
1929 - The year of the "great turning point", the beginning of collectivization and industrialization
1932-1933 - Famine
1933 - Recognition of the USSR by the USA
1934 - First Congress of Writers
1934 - XVII Party Congress ("Congress of Winners")
1934 - The inclusion of the USSR in the League of Nations
1936 - Constitution of the USSR
1938 - Clash with Japan at Lake Khasan
1939, May - Collision with Japan near the Khalkhin Gol River
1939, August 23 - Signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact
1939, September 1 - Beginning of World War II
1939, September 17 - The invasion of Soviet troops into Poland
1939, September 28 - Signing of an agreement with Germany "On Friendship and Borders"
1939, November 30 - The beginning of the war with Finland
1939, December 14 - Expulsion of the USSR from the League of Nations
1940, March 12 - Conclusion of a peace treaty with Finland
1941, April 13 - Signing of the non-aggression pact with Japan
1941, June 22 - Invasion of Germany and its allies in the Soviet Union
1941, June 23 - Headquarters of the High Command was formed
1941, June 28 - The capture of Minsk by German troops
1941, June 30 - Establishment State Committee defense (GKO)
1941, August 5-October 16 - Defense of Odessa
1941, September 8 - The beginning of the blockade of Leningrad
1941, September 29-October 1 - Moscow Conference
1941, September 30 - Beginning of the Typhoon plan
1941, December 5 - The beginning of the counteroffensive of the Soviet troops in the battle of Moscow

1941, December 5-6 - Defense of Sevastopol
1942, January 1 - Accession of the USSR to the Declaration of the United Nations
1942, May - The defeat of the Soviet army during the Kharkov operation
1942, July 17 - Beginning Battle of Stalingrad
1942, November 19-20 - Beginning of the implementation of Operation Uranus
1943, January 10 - Beginning of Operation Ring
1943, January 18 - The end of the blockade of Leningrad
1943, July 5 - The beginning of the counteroffensive of the Soviet troops in the Battle of Kursk
1943, July 12 - Beginning of the Battle of Kursk
1943, November 6 - Liberation of Kyiv
1943, November 28-December 1 - Tehran Conference
1944, June 23-24 - Beginning of the Iasi-Kishinev operation
1944, August 20 - Beginning of Operation Bagration
1945, January 12-14 - Beginning of the Vistula-Oder operation
1945, February 4-11 - Yalta Conference
1945, April 16-18 - Beginning of the Berlin operation
1945, April 18 - Surrender of the Berlin garrison
1945, May 8 - Signing of the act of unconditional surrender of Germany
1945, July 17 - August 2 - Potsdam Conference
1945, August 8 - Announcement of the soldiers of the USSR Japan
1945, September 2 - Surrender of Japan.
1946 - Resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks "On the magazines Zvezda and Leningrad"
1949 - Test atomic weapons THE USSR. Leningrad case. Test of Soviet nuclear weapons. Formation of Germany and the GDR. 1949 Formation of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA).
1950-1953 - Korean War
1952 - XIX Party Congress
1952-1953 - "the cause of doctors"
1953 - Test of the hydrogen weapon of the USSR
1953, March 5 - Death of I. V. Stalin
1955 - Formation of the Warsaw Pact organization
1956 - XX Party Congress, debunking the personality cult of I. V. Stalin
1957 - Completion of the construction of the nuclear-powered ship "Lenin"
1957 - Launch of the first satellite into space by the USSR
1957 - Establishment of the Economic Council
1961, April 12 - Yu. A. Gagarin's flight into space
1961 - XXII Party Congress
1961 - Kosygin reforms
1962 - Unrest in Novocherkassk
1964 - Displacement of N. S. Khrushchev from the post of First Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU
1965 - Construction of the Berlin Wall
1968 - The introduction of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia
1969 - Military clash between the USSR and China
1974 - Start of construction of BAM
1972 - A.I. Brodsky expelled from the USSR
1974 - A.I. Solzhenitsyn was expelled from the USSR
1975 - Helsinki Agreement
1977 - New Constitution
1979 - The entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan
1980-1981 - Political crisis in Poland.
1982-1984 - Leadership of the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU Yu.V. Andropov
1984-1985 - Leadership of the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU K.U. Chernenko
1985-1991 - Leadership of the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU M.S. Gorbachev
1988 - XIX party conference
1988 - The beginning of the armed conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan
1989 - Election of the Congress of People's Deputies
1989 - Withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan
1990 - Election of M. S. Gorbachev as President of the USSR
1991, August 19-22 - Creation of the State Emergency Committee. Coup attempt
1991, August 24 - Mikhail Gorbachev resigns from the post of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU (August 29, the Russian parliament prohibits the activities of the Communist Party and seizes party property).
1991, December 8 - Belovezhskaya agreement, the abolition of the USSR, the creation of the CIS.
1991, December 25 - M.S. Gorbachev resigns as president of the USSR.

Russian Federation

1992 - Beginning of market reforms in Russian Federation.
1993, September 21 - "Decree on a phased constitutional reform in the Russian Federation." The beginning of the political crisis.
1993, October 2-3 - clashes in Moscow between supporters of the parliamentary opposition and the police.
1993, October 4 - the capture of the White House by military units, the arrest of A.V. Rutskoi and R.I. Khasbulatov.
1993, December 12 - Adoption of the Constitution of the Russian Federation. Elections to the first State Duma of the Russian Federation for a transitional period (2 years).
1994, December 11 - The entry of Russian troops into the Chechen Republic to restore "constitutional order."
1995 - Elections to the State Duma for 4 years.
1996 - Elections for the post of President of the Russian Federation. B.N. Yeltsin gains 54% of the vote and becomes president of the Russian Federation.
1996 - Signing of an interim agreement on the suspension of hostilities.
1997 - withdrawal completion federal troops from Chechnya.
1998, August 17 - economic crisis in Russia, default.
1999, August - Chechen fighters invaded the mountainous regions of Dagestan. The beginning of the II Chechen campaign.
1999, December 31 - B.N. Yeltsin announced the early resignation of the powers of the President of the Russian Federation and the appointment of V.V. Putin as acting president of Russia.
2000, March - the election of V.V. Putin as President of the Russian Federation.
2000, August - the death of the nuclear submarine "Kursk". 117 crew members of the nuclear submarine "Kursk" were posthumously awarded the Order of Courage, the captain was posthumously awarded the Hero's Star.
2000, April 14 - The State Duma decided to ratify the Russian-American START-2 treaty. This treaty assumes further reduction of strategic offensive arms of both countries.
2000, May 7 - Official introduction by V.V. Putin as President of the Russian Federation.
2000, May 17 - Approval by M.M. Kasyanov as Prime Minister of the Russian Federation.
2000, August 8 - A terrorist act in Moscow - an explosion in the underpass of the Pushkinskaya metro station. 13 people died, a hundred were injured.
2004, August 21-22 - There was an invasion of the city of Grozny by a detachment of militants numbering more than 200 people. For three hours they held the city center and killed more than 100 people.
2004, August 24 - In the sky over Tula and Rostov regions Simultaneously, two passenger planes that took off from Moscow's Domodedovo airport to Sochi and Volgograd were blown up. 90 people died.
2005, May 9 - Parade on Red Square on May 9, 2005 in honor of the 60th anniversary of Victory Day.
2005, August - Scandal with the beating of the children of Russian diplomats in Poland and the "retaliatory" beating of the Poles in Moscow.
November 1, 2005 - A successful test launch of the Topol-M rocket with a new warhead was carried out from the Kapustin Yar test site in the Astrakhan region.
2006, January 1 - Municipal reform in Russia.
2006, March 12 - First Single Voting Day (changes in the electoral legislation of the Russian Federation).
2006, July 10 - Destroyed Chechen terrorist"Number 1" Shamil Basayev.
2006, October 10, Russian President Vladimir Putin and Federal Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel unveiled a monument to Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky in Dresden by People's Artist of Russia Alexander Rukavishnikov.
October 13, 2006 - Russian Vladimir Kramnik was proclaimed the absolute world chess champion after defeating Bulgarian Veselin Topalov in a match.
2007, January 1 - Krasnoyarsk region, Taimyr (Dolgano-Nenets) and Evenk Autonomous Okrugs merged into a single subject of the Russian Federation - the Krasnoyarsk Territory.
2007, February 10 - President of Russia V.V. Putin said the so-called. "Munich speech".
2007, May 17 - In the Moscow Cathedral of Christ the Savior, Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow and All Rus' and the First Hierarch of ROCOR, Metropolitan of Eastern America and New York Laurus, signed the Act of Canonical Communion, a document that ended the division between the Russian Church Abroad and the Moscow Patriarchate.
July 1, 2007 - The Kamchatka region and the Koryak Autonomous Okrug merged into the Kamchatka Territory.
2007, August 13 - Nevsky Express train accident.
2007, September 12 - Mikhail Fradkov's government resigned.
September 14, 2007 - Viktor Zubkov is appointed as the new Prime Minister of Russia.
2007, October 17 - The Russian national football team led by Guus Hiddink defeated the England national team with a score of 2:1.
2007, December 2 - Elections to the State Duma Federal Assembly Russian Federation of the 5th convocation.
December 10, 2007 - Dmitry Medvedev is nominated as a candidate for the President of the Russian Federation from United Russia.
2008, March 2 - Elections of the third President of the Russian Federation were held. Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev won.
2008, May 7 - Inauguration of the third President of the Russian Federation, Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev.
2008, August 8 - In the zone of the Georgian-South Ossetian conflict, active fighting: Georgia stormed Tskhinvali, Russia officially joined the armed conflict on the side of South Ossetia.
2008, August 11 - Active hostilities began in the zone of the Georgian-South Ossetian conflict: Georgia stormed Tskhinvali, Russia officially joined the armed conflict on the side of South Ossetia.
August 26, 2008 - Russian President Dmitry Medvedev signed a decree recognizing the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia.
September 14, 2008 - A Boeing 737 passenger plane crashed in Perm.
2008, December 5 - Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' Alexy II died. Temporarily, the place of the primate of the Russian Orthodox Church is taken by the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne, Metropolitan of Smolensk and Kaliningrad Kirill.
January 1, 2009 - The Unified State Exam became mandatory throughout Russia.
2009, January 25-27 - Extraordinary Bishops' Council of the Russian Orthodox Church. The Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church has elected a new Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus'. They became Cyril.
2009, February 1 - Enthronement of the newly elected Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' Kirill.
2009, July 6-7 - Visit of US President Barack Obama to Russia.

Historical periods and eras

Primitive society

up to approx. 3000 BC uh. (unification of Upper and Lower Egypt)

Paleolithic and Mesolithic

Neolithic

Bronze Age

iron age

Ancient world

3000 BC e. - 476 AD e.(fall of the Roman Empire)

Hellenism

Ancient Rome

Middle Ages

476 - late 15th century(beginning of the Age of Discovery)

Early Middle Ages (late 5th - mid-11th centuries)

High (classical) Middle Ages (mid-11th - late 15th centuries)

Early Modern (or Late Middle Ages)

end of the 15th century - 1789(the beginning of the Great french revolution)

Renaissance (Renaissance)
The beginning of the Renaissance is considered the beginning of the XIV century in Italy, the XV-XVI century in other European countries.
Historians consider the end of the era to be the last quarter of the 16th century and, in some cases, the first decades of the 17th century.

Revival is divided into 4 stages:
Proto-Renaissance (2nd half of the 13th century - 14th century)
Early Renaissance (early 15th - late 15th century)
High Renaissance (late 15th - first 20 years of the 16th century)
Late Renaissance (mid-16th - 1590s)

The era of great geographical discoveries (XV century - XVII century)

Reformation I (XVI century - beginning XVII century)

Part of the Enlightenment

new time

1789 - 1918 (end of World War I)

Part of the Enlightenment
There is no consensus regarding the dating of this worldview era. Some historians attribute its beginning to late XVII century, others - by the middle of the XVIII century.
In the 17th century, the foundations of rationalism were laid by Descartes in his Discourse on Method (1637). The end of the Enlightenment is often associated with the death of Voltaire (1778) or with the start of the Napoleonic Wars (1800-1815).
At the same time, there is an opinion that the borders of the Enlightenment are tied to two revolutions: the Glorious Revolution in England (1688) and the Great French Revolution (1789).

industrial revolution (second half of the 18th century - 19th century)

19th century

recent history

1918 - present day

Historical eras in art

Approximate designation of eras in chronological order

Timekeeping and chronology

The generally accepted chronology in most countries is based on the Christian era ("our era" - from the moment of the alleged birth of Jesus Christ).
Our era, n. e. (also called "new era") - the current period of time, starting from year 1 in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The period preceding it (ending before the beginning of the first year) is the period BC, BC. e.
The name is often used in the religious form "from the Nativity of Christ", the abbreviated record is "from R. X.", and, accordingly, "before the Nativity of Christ", "before R. X.".

The zero year is not used in either secular or religious notations - this was introduced by Beda the Venerable at the beginning of the 8th century (zero was not common in culture at all then). However, year zero is used in Astronomical year numbering and in ISO 8601.

According to most scholars, when the Roman hegumen Dionysius the Small calculated the year of the Nativity of Christ in the 6th century, an error of several years was made.

Centuries to millennia

Ages and years BC

Which years belong to which centuries

Ages and years AD

Which years belong to which centuries

see also