The German Empire was formed c. The World History. Germany forges the foundations of its unprecedented economic strength

On January 18, 1871, a new state was formed on the map of Europe, called the German Empire. The founding fathers of this state formation are considered to be an outstanding personality who went down in history under the formidable name of the "Iron Chancellor" - Otto von Bismarck, as well as Wilhelm I of Hohenzollern. The German Empire lasted until November 9, 1918, after which the monarchy was overthrown as a result of the November Revolution. It went down in history as a state distinguished by power and a clearly defined development strategy.

The German Empire is the name that Russian historiographers began to use in the 19th century. The Second Reich, Kaiser's Germany - are found in the literature much less frequently. Its formation was facilitated by the following significant historical events:

• the collapse of the German Confederation (1866);
• war between Germany and Denmark (1864);
• war between such states as Austria and Prussia (1866);
• war between Prussia and France (1870-1871);
• creation of the North German Union (1866-1871).

In 1879, King Wilhelm I of Prussia, together with Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, declared war on France in order to undermine its economy and influence the political situation of this country. As a result of hostilities, they decided the North German Confederation, which was created for this purpose, won a complete victory over the French, and in January 1871 at Versailles it was announced that the creation of the German Empire had taken place. From that moment on, a new page appeared in world history. The unification of not only countries but also other states began, which considered joining the empire the most appropriate for themselves. Bavaria and other lands of southern Germany became part of the German Empire.

Austria flatly refused to be a part of it. At the end of the Franco-Prussian War, France paid a huge indemnity (five billion francs), so the formation of the German Empire did not begin from scratch. Thanks to such a serious financial injection, she was able to create her own economy. Kaiser (King) Wilhelm I was nominally at the head, but Chancellor Otto von Bismarck took control of the empire in fact. The states that were not part of were forcibly subordinated to Prussia, so the creation of the German Empire cannot be called a voluntary association. It consisted of twenty-two German monarchies and the cities of Bremen, Lübeck and Hamburg, which at that time were free.

After the adoption of the Constitution in April 1871, the German Empire received the status and the Prussian king received the title of emperor. During the entire period of its existence, this title was used by three monarchs. This is who was in power from 1871 to 1888, Frederick III, who stayed in power for only 99 days and Wilhelm II (1888-1918). The last emperor, after the overthrow of the monarchy, fled to the Netherlands, where he died in 1941.

The formation of the German Empire contributed to the national unification of the German people and the speedy capitalization of Germany. But after this empire was created, it became very dangerous for all the peoples of Europe and, perhaps, the whole world. The German Empire began to intensively develop its combat power and dictate its conditions from a position of strength. It was at this time that the birth of nationalism began, which subsequently led to two world wars, various bloody revolutions and millions of dead, annihilated people. With the formation of the German Empire, the national idea of ​​the world domination of their country and the superiority of the Germans over other peoples settled in the souls of the people of the German nation.

Continuing a series of publications on the topic of the German Reichs, and answering the question of where the first and second Reichs had gone, we bring to the attention of readers a short article briefly describing key points Second Reich - the German Empire, which lasted only 47 years, but played one of the key roles in the formation modern world as we know it.

Second Reich– The German Empire (1871-1918) During these years, the German state reaches the highest point of its power. Germany is becoming the largest colonial power, playing one of the leading roles on the planet.

After the victory of the German army in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. King Wilhelm I and Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck begin the unification of German territories in order to seize leadership of the European continent from France. January 18, 1871 Bismarck and Wilhelm I announce the reunification of Germany. Bismarck's old dream came true - for the first time in history, a truly unified German state, the German Reich, was created.

The newly formed empire is joined by states that were not previously part of the North German Confederation (a state association that preceded the formation of the German Empire): Saxony and a number of other South German lands. However, Austria (the Austro-Hungarian Empire) did not enter the united Germany, which preferred independent development, although it continued to be an ally of the German Empire until its fall.

The victory over France was a powerful impetus for the development of the German economy and the rapid transformation of the country into a major world power. The huge indemnity paid to the Reich by the French formed a solid foundation in the construction of the German state.
So in the last quarter of the 19th century, a new powerful state appeared on the planet - the German Reich. The territory of the Second Reich was 540,857 km², the population exceeded 40 million people, and the army numbered almost 1 million bayonets.

Imperial power and state administration
According to the constitution, the first person of the German Empire was the Prussian king, who was the German emperor. However, the emperor had the right to participate in legislative matters only in the status of the Prussian king. The head of the German Empire promulgated laws; but since, according to the basic law, he did not even use the right of veto, this right of his should be considered only as a simple duty of the executive power. At the same time, the emperor had every right to issue personal orders. In a situation threatening the security of the state, he had the right, both in wartime and in peacetime, to declare a state of siege in any region of the empire (except Bavaria).

The emperor appointed and dismissed all the main imperial officials, starting with the chancellor, who in turn was the main person of the executive branch and at the same time the only state official responsible to the Reichstag and the federal council for all the activities of his branch of government. In addition to the Reich Chancellor himself, there was no position of minister in the empire. The functions of ministers were performed by secretaries of state, who were subordinate to the Reich Chancellor and presided over various imperial departments.

The parliament of the empire was bicameral, consisted of the Bundesrat (Allied Council) and the Reichstag (Imperial Assembly). The upper house - the Bundesrat - consisted of representatives of the lands appointed by local governments. The lower house - the Reichstag - was first elected for 3 years, and since 1888 - for 5 years by secret popular vote, in which men over 25 years old took part.

German economic power
By the end of the 19th century, imperial industry was experiencing rapid growth. Based on the latest technical achievements, Germany is getting the most modern chemical, metallurgical, and machine-building industries, electrical engineering is developing, and production is rapidly mechanizing and expanding. Industrial and banking monopolies are created in the empire. Moreover, this process is much more intensive than in other European countries. The bulk of lending operations are concentrated in the hands of a few giant banks firmly connected with the industrial monopolies. In the course of the formation of monopolies, famous financial magnates stand out: Kirdorf and Krupp, who concentrated in their hands colossal funds and the greatest economic power, which sooner or later had to be thrown out somewhere. The accumulation of a critical mass of economic, industrial and military potential of European empires caused the outbreak of the First World War - the first war in the history of mankind to complete annihilation.

Germany in the First World War - the culmination of the power of the empire and its collapse
The first months of the war were successful for Germany: Russian troops were defeated in East Prussia, the Germans occupied Belgium and Luxembourg, entered Northeast France. Paris is wholly and completely indebted only to the selfless offensive of Russia on the Eastern Front.

In the course of active hostilities in the first months of the war, Germany won many striking victories, but by 1915 the war had acquired a protracted positional character, things were going to the mutual exhaustion of all the parties involved. Despite the colossal industrial potential, Germany failed to organize a major offensive and thereby change the nature of hostilities. As a result, the strength of the empire was depleted, and the chances of its successful exit from the war were fading away every day.

As a result, in November 1918, Germany capitulated to the Entente countries. 47 years after its triumphant creation, the Second Reich fell, losing not only its colonies, but also part of its national territory. Emperor - Wilhelm II, fled to Holland and spent the rest of his days in exile. In Berlin, as well as shortly before that in Petrograd, a Provisional Government was formed, which signed the Treaty of Compiègne, shameful for Germany.

In January 1919, a peace conference opened in Versailles, as a result of which Germany lost about 13% of its territory. Germany lost its ancestral territories: Alsace and Lorraine, West Prussia, Upper Silesia, southeast Prussia and Northern Schleswig-Holstein. Together with these territories, Germany was deprived not only of human resources, but also of the prerequisites for economic growth, minerals and a number of important industries.

Most importantly, Germany was deprived of international equality. The dismemberment of the country, multimillion-dollar indemnity, the ban on having a regular army, total international humiliation, bordering on a real lynching, gave rise to deep disappointment in German society, nationwide resentment and discontent, and most importantly, a hitherto unconscious thirst for revenge. Most German citizens dreamed of reviving the power of their country, the great German Reich. A little more than ten years remained before the advent of the Nazis coming to power ...

Existing until 1866, the German Union was a union of states. The allied power was very weak and could not provide Germany even in international relations with any kind of powerful position. Fragmentation political life created obstacles to national development. It is no wonder, therefore, that the German patriots have long striven for greater political unification. But these aspirations were broken mainly by the rivalry between the two strongest German powers - Prussia and Austria, which finally led to the Prussian-Austrian war of 1866. The consequence of the Prussian victories was Austria's falling away from the union by virtue of the Nikolsburg Preliminary Treaty: this eliminated the dualism in the composition of the union, which prevented its consolidation. But the Treaty of Prague added to this the inadmissibility of joining the North German alliance of Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and Hesse, which had been formed under the hegemony of Prussia. It was left to them to form out of themselves a special South German alliance. This would mean dividing Germany instead of uniting it. The North German Confederation was formed on July 1, 1867. The South German alliance was not formed, but the South German states concluded with the formed North German alliance primarily a defensive and offensive alliance, and the matter was not limited to one condition to help each other in case of war, but, in addition, it was also decided by the South German states to accept the Prussian military system, and general commissions were even established to inspect the fortresses of Ulm, Rastatt, Landau and Mainz. In addition, southern Germany together with the north German confederation constituted one customs union. Their final accession to the North German alliance took place only after the Franco-Prussian war, which made it possible to deviate from the embarrassing provisions of the Prague Treaty. With the annexation of the South German states, the North German Confederation became the German Empire, which was formed on January 1, 1871.

The German imperial constitution, like the Swiss federal constitution, undoubtedly also took shape on the model of the North American one, this prototype of all allied states. But the German constitution presents more and, moreover, more essential features. They were determined mainly by the peculiar composition of the German Empire. Both the United States and Switzerland are all composed of republics: the states that are part of the German Empire, with the exception of the large cities of Hamburg, Lübeck and Bremen, all monarchies. This circumstance could not but give rise to significant peculiarities in the organization of the allied power. Monarchical power, on the other hand, is as easily subject to restrictions as republican power. Therefore, the monarchical governments of the German states had to be given greater independence to the detriment of the consistent implementation of the idea of ​​a single allied power. Other salient feature German Empire - the extreme unevenness of the power of its individual constituent states and, above all, the overwhelming power of Prussia. Under such conditions, it was impossible to establish the principle of equality of individual states to the same extent as is done with the American states or the Swiss cantons. Finally, the changed conditions of the time also had their effect. By the 1960s, when the constitution of the North German Confederation was drawn up, the theory of separation of powers no longer enjoyed the unconditional recognition it had at the end of the last century. They also lost faith in the meaning of the proclamation in the constitution of the inalienable rights of a citizen. Therefore, in the German constitution we do not find at all a section containing a declaration of rights, we do not find any consistent implementation of the principle of separation of powers.

The monarchical organization of the German states led, first of all, to the fact that the German constitution, unlike the American and Swiss ones, is not an act of popular will, but an act of contractual agreement between monarchical governments. In a republic, the supreme power belongs to the people - its will, and establishes the union organization. In a monarchy, the monarch is the bearer of supreme power: therefore, the agreement of the monarchs is also required to establish an allied structure. But this does not give the German Empire the character of a contractual relationship. The subject of the agreement between the governments was precisely the establishment of an empire. Once the empire has been organized, the content of the treaty has been exhausted, and thus contractual relations have also ceased. The monarchical structure of the decisive majority of the German states naturally led to the fact that individual governments in their totality are the subject of the supreme imperial power. The union council serves as the organ of their joint activity. This institution is placed in a completely different position than the cantonal council of Switzerland or the American Senate.

The Federal Council is composed of authorized individual governments. These commissioners act according to the instructions they receive from the government. If any government has several commissioners in council, they must all act in harmony. On the other hand, they matter not only as members of the council, but as separate representatives of the government. This is expressed in the right of the delegates, who remained in the minority in voting, to support and defend their opinion before the Reichstag. The governments are completely free in appointing their representatives: even the term of their powers has not been determined. They occupy the position not of independent members of the representative assembly, but of subordinate officials, and are subject to the general conditions of service discipline. The number of them from different states is not precisely defined. Only the maximum is indicated: there cannot be more than how many votes each state has in the council. The basis for determining the number of votes in the council was the number of votes used by individual states in the former German Diet. Only Bavaria, instead of 4, was granted 6 votes, and Prussia combined with the votes that belonged to her the votes of the states she conquered. Thus, the following distribution of votes was obtained: Prussia has 17 votes, Bavaria - 6. Saxony and Württemberg - 4 each, Baden and Hesse - 3 each, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Braunschweig - 2 each and the remaining 17 states each with one vote, - in total 58 votes for 25 states. The imperial region of Alsace-Lorraine does not have its representative in the council, since it is not a member of the empire, but only belongs to it; but since 1879, a representative of her government has been invited to the meeting of the council with an advisory vote. Matters are decided in the council by a majority of votes, but, as we have already seen, the majority does not have unconditional significance here. Those left in the minority can defend their opinion before the Reichstag. If the majority of the council rejects any assumption, then this right of the minority, of course, does not practical value. The Reichstag cannot impose any measure on the council. But if the proposal is accepted by the majority, then the minority can in this way induce the Reichstag to reject the proposal adopted by the council and thus prevent its implementation. Consequently, a certain independence is protected for the minority only to the extent that it is a matter of maintaining the existing state of affairs. This trend is reflected in other resolutions, the constitution. Changes to the constitution are made by the general legislative procedure. But in the council, proposals of this kind are considered rejected if only 14 votes are opposed to them, that is, less than ¼ of all votes. At the same time, Prussia, which has 17 votes, alone can stop any change in the constitution; likewise Bavaria and Saxony with Württemberg, or with Baden, Hesse and Braunschweig. Consequently, medium-sized states, united, may also prevent changes to the constitution; the small states can do the same, even if they agree to changes in the constitution of three of them. Moreover, the emperor can stop any bill aimed at changing the existing legislation on military and naval administration, as well as regarding taxes on native sugar, vodka, salt, beer and tobacco. Council meetings are chaired by the Imperial Chancellor, appointed by the Emperor. The council is convened by the emperor, and also at the request of at least 18 votes. Consequently, small states alone, without the assistance of some middle one, cannot demand the convening of a council. The average states, having together 24 votes, and not all, having agreed among themselves, demand the convocation of a council. He can also sit during the Reichstag vacancies²*.

The Federal Council occupies a position similar to the monarch in individual states. Together with the Reichstag, it exercises legislative power and, in addition, independently exercises governmental power. True, in addition to the union council, there is also an emperor who is at the head of the empire, but the emperor is not, the sole organ of government power. On the contrary, by general rule, he implements it jointly with the Union Council. This is also indicated by the fact that the constitution defines his position not as the head of the empire and not even as the head of the executive, but is limited to the rather vague expression Präsidium - chairmanship. However, some rights belong to the sole authority of the emperor. He convenes the federal council and the Reichstag, represents the empire in external and internal relations, commands the armed forces of the empire, appoints the imperial chancellor and imperial ministers.

The title of emperor always belongs to the Prussian king. Similarly, the Prussian crown prince is also called the imperial heir to the throne. In the case of a regency, the Prussian regent also performs the functions of the emperor.³*

The representative body of the people has the Reichstag as its organ. It is composed of representatives directly elected by the people, by universal and secret suffrage, in such a way that one representative is elected from every 100,000 inhabitants. But each state is divided into a whole number of electoral districts, and in any case has at least one representative in the Reichstag. ⅔ of all members of the Reichstag are elected from Prussia. The election term is three years.

The Emperor, the Federal Council and the Reichstag serve as organs of a single imperial power. The territory and population of the empire are likewise one and the same. The unity of the territory is expressed mainly in the fact that the whole empire forms one customs territory. The unity of the population finds expression in the fact that the conditions for the acquisition of citizenship are determined by imperial legislation, and that the subject of any German state is at the same time a subject of the empire, and therefore enjoys in all German states the same rights as local natural subjects.

The unity of the legal order is ensured by the German constitution, which is weaker than that of the North American and Swiss constitutions. The German constitution does not at all establish principles binding on particular legislation.

It does not guarantee the rights of civil liberty. It does not oblige even individual states to maintain any particular form of government. In view of the existence of the empires of three free cities with a republican form of government, it was impossible to make one monarchical form of government obligatory for all German states. But the imperial constitution does not even ensure that each state preserves what existed in it when the empire was formed. state structure. Consequently, the constitutional monarchy can be replaced in them by an absolute or even a republic. The absence of principles binding on particular legislations is partly compensated for by the principles expressed in Art. 2 rule that imperial laws take precedence over particular legislation. This rule, combined with the imperial authority's right to supervise all branches of government within imperial competence, enables the imperial authority to maintain, at least in this area, a proper unity of the legal order.

According to Art. 4 of the constitution, the right of supervision and legislation of the imperial power extends to the following subjects: 1) the determination of the settlement and the regulation of freedom of movement; 2) customs and trade; 3) coinage and definition of units of measure; 4) banking; 5) privileges for inventions; 6) literary and artistic property; 7) international trade, navigation and consular offices; 8) railway business and, in general, communication routes of general imperial importance; 9) shipping; 10) mail and telegraphs; 11) civil, criminal and procedural legislation; 12) organization of the army and navy; 13) medical and veterinary business; 14) freedom of the press and communication.

The protection of the legal order by the imperial authorities is expressed in various forms. Firstly, the emperor has the right, if necessary, to declare in a state of siege either the entire imperial territory, or its individual parts, with the exception of Bavaria. Secondly, the allied council is in charge of resolving all kinds of clashes between different states, as well as internal constitutional conflicts in individual states; if the efforts of the allied council to settle the matter do not lead to the goal, it is resolved by imperial law. Thirdly, in Germany there is also a general imperial court of irremovable members appointed by the emperor, but its competence is limited only to civil and criminal cases. Cases of state crimes directed against the emperor and the empire are decided by the imperial court as the first and last instance. As court of appeal he is in charge of civil and criminal cases before the consular courts. Finally, as an auditing body, it has jurisdiction over those complaints against decisions of particular courts that are based solely on violations of local particular laws.

Like Switzerland, the finances of the German Empire are twofold. Imperial expenses are covered partly by special imperial taxes, partly by matricular contributions from individual states. Imperial taxes are customs duties, duties on documents and playing cards, and taxes on the consumption of salt, sugar, wine, tobacco and beer. But not all of these taxes go directly to cover imperial expenses. By a law of 1879, it was decreed that customs revenue and revenue from the tax on tobacco come to cover the imperial expenses on land alone, 180 million marks. The surplus received in excess of this amount is distributed among the individual states according to the size of their population. The same is done with income received from duties on documents and playing cards (law 1881). Under such conditions, matricular contributions no longer have, as in Switzerland, an exceptional character, but seem to be a normal way of covering imperial expenses. They are distributed among individual states according to the number of population.

International relations do not constitute the exclusive right of the empire, and individual states have retained the right to communicate with foreign powers, appoint and receive diplomatic agents, and conclude international treaties. But all this, of course, is only so far as the matter does not concern the subjects of the exclusive competence of the empire. Only the right of war and the organization of consular offices are unconditionally and wholly left to the imperial power.

Notes:

¹* Gradovsky. German Constitution, vol. I. 1876, vol. II. 1876. Laband. Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reichs. I. 1888. II. 1891. (Last edition 4, 1901, in four volumes). Hanel. Deutsche Staatsrecht. I. 1892.

²* The Union Council has actually become a continuously sitting institution. Wed Jelinek: Constitutions, their changes and transformations. 1907, p. 27).

³* Korkunov. The Question of Regency in Germany. In Collection of Articles. 1898.

During the Franco-Prussian war, the German lands were finally united and on January 18, 1871, the creation of the German Empire was solemnly proclaimed in Versailles, the first chancellor of which was A. Wismark. Since then, Germany has held key positions in European foreign relations.

According to the constitution of 1871, the German Empire was a federal union of 22 monarchies, in which individual states had internal autonomy. The supreme executive power belonged to the emperor, who appointed the imperial chancellor with broad powers. The emperor owned legislature, he led the armed forces, had the right to declare war and make peace. The highest representative bodies were the Reichstag and Federal Council(Bundesrat). The Reichstag had a legislative initiative and elections were held on the basis of universal suffrage. The Federal Council consisted of representatives of the governments of all German lands and solved external and internal political problems. The role of the legislature was limited and they could make laws only after prior agreement with the emperor. In addition, legislators were almost never consulted on important foreign policy issues. So "in comparison with France and England, the legislative bodies of Germany were small and could not influence government policy.

The overwhelming majority in the Reichstag were representatives of the Conservative Party, which reflected the interests of the big bourgeoisie and landlords. The party advocated strengthening the power of the emperor, demanded the introduction of agrarian protectionism and the buildup of the military power of the German army. The conservatives had a strong influence in the imperial government apparatus and the Prussian Landtag. Influential was the Catholic party, or the Center Party, which received 20-25% of the vote. Among its supporters were Christian trade unions, peasant and youth associations. This party advocated the freedom of activity of the Catholic Church and the preservation of church schools. At the beginning of the century, the positions of the National Liberal Party (the "progressive" party), which represented the interests of the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie, significantly weakened. The reactionary part of the party, together with the conservatives, in 1904 formed the Imperial Union for the Struggle against Social Democracy. Social Democrats were also in opposition to the government, among whom the controversy connected with the attempt of By did not die out. Bernstein to direct the socialist movement not to revolutionary transformations, but to reformist paths of struggle for social rights.

The constitution was designed in such a way as to give the chancellor (until 1890 A. von Bismarck actually ruled the country) and the monarch full power. Universal suffrage was introduced only because Bismarck believed that the countryside would vote for the Conservative candidates. In addition, the division into constituencies took place in such a way as to provide an advantage precisely to the villagers. Bismarck considered the Liberals, the Center Party and the Social Democrats to be enemies as they tried to change the conservative character of the empire.

The centralization and unification of the governing bodies of the "liberal era" (1871-1878) made it possible to carry out a number of reforms of an all-imperial nature, the most important of which were the introduction of a single monetary system - marks, the creation of the Reichsbank (Reichsbank) and unified armed forces.

After the creation of the empire and the adoption of the constitution, Bismarck was faced with the task of curbing the opposition, in particular the Catholic Center Party and the Socialists. The "Iron Chancellor" Bismarck dealt the first blow to the Catholics. Of the 41 million population of the German Empire, 63% were Protestants, 36% were Roman Catholics.

The latter distrusted Protestant Prussia and often opposed the Bismarck government. Bismarck's ally in the fight against the Catholics was the liberals, who considered the Roman Catholic Church politically conservative and were afraid of its influence on a third of the Germans. Bismarck did not intend to destroy Catholicism in Germany, but set the task of undermining the political influence of the Catholic Center Party.

The German government's measures against Catholics were called "Kulturkampf" - the struggle for culture (1871-1887). This term came into use after, in 1873, the Prussian scholar and liberal statesman G. Virchow announced that the battle with the Catholics "acquired the character great battle for humanism."

In July 1871, Bismarck abolished the Catholic administration in the Prussian Ministry of Education and Spiritual Affairs. In November of the same year, Catholic priests were forbidden to speak on political topics during sermons. In March 1872 all religious schools were placed under state control. In the summer of the same year, priest teachers were released from public schools, the Jesuit order was banned from operating in Germany, and diplomatic relations with the Vatican were severed. In May 1873 the Prussian Minister of Culture A. Falk took the appointment of priests under state control. The culmination of "Kulturkampfu" was 1875 p., When a law on compulsory civil marriage was passed in Germany. Dioceses that did not comply with the orders of officials were closed, priests were expelled, and church property was confiscated.

However, Bismarck could not overcome the resistance of the Catholics, which, on the contrary, intensified. In the 1874 elections to the Reichstag, the Center Party doubled its representation. Bismarck, as a pragmatic politician, decided to retreat and admitted that some of his measures were too cruel and did not achieve the desired goal. In the 1980s, most of the Kulturkampfu legislation was repealed.

The reason for the fight against the socialists, who in 1875 created a single Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and in the elections of 1877 to the Reichstag received the support of almost 500 thousand people and got 12 deputies into parliament, was the assassination attempt on Wilhelm i on May 11 and June 2, 1878. On June 2, the emperor was seriously wounded. Bismarck dissolved the Reichstag and called new elections, which were held in an atmosphere of frenzied propaganda against the Social Democrats, who were accused of terrorist acts. In the new composition of the Reichstag, the right-wing parties received a majority. On October 19, 1878, they adopted the Law Against the Socially Dangerous Intentions of Social Democracy, which was introduced as a temporary one for 2 years, but was valid until 1890. During its operation, more than 2 thousand people were arrested or deported from the country, hundreds of periodicals , workers' unions and unions are closed and banned.

However, the Socialists kept the party alive even while operating in Switzerland. Here the official organ of the party was published - the newspaper "Social Democrat", which was illegally delivered to Germany and distributed among the workers. The real leader of the party was A. Bebel, who defended the idea of ​​fighting for socialism by peaceful means. The influence of the Social Democrats grew and in 1887 they brought 24 deputies to parliament. The fight against the Social Democrats for Bismarck ended in failure. In 1912, the Social Democrats won 110 out of 397 seats in the Reichstag.

In the early 80s, Bismarck made statements about the need for broad social reforms in the spirit of the theory of "social monarchy", which provided for the strengthening of the monarchical regime by achieving social harmony between different strata and classes of society, the introduction of labor legislation and the practical provision of social protection.

Bismarck ran into opposition in the Reichstag among the deputies who represented the circle of wealthy industrialists, since social reforms really threatened their super-high profits. The chancellor managed to break the opposition with the support of the emperor and broad public thought. In 1883-1889 pp. The Reichstag passed three laws on insurance against sickness, injury, old age and disability (the latter provided for the payment of a pension to workers who have reached the age of 70). Germany became the first country in Europe to adopt broad social legislation.

However, Bismarck's domestic policy of supporting the accelerated social and economic modernization of Germany for trying to prevent any reform of the authoritarian political system, led to constant political crises and was criticized by polar political forces. After the death of Wilhelm I in 1888, his grandson Wilhelm II (1888-1941) became emperor. His relationship with the 74-year-old Chancellor was tense from the start. The reason for the final break was the results of the elections to the Reichstag in 1890, in which almost 1.5 million voters voted for the socialists. The law against the socialists had to be repealed and the offended chancellor resigned. The emperor did not stop him, assuring everyone that the course of the founder of the German Empire would remain unchanged.

Bismarck's successor was JI. von Caprivi, ex-military and not experienced enough political figure. Unlike his predecessor, the new chancellor tried to cooperate with polar political forces - the Center Party and the Social Democrats. With their support, customs tariffs for the import of grain crops to Germany were reduced, and profitable trade agreements were concluded with Russia, Austria-Hungary and Romania. Food prices fell, industrial growth began and the standard of living of the population increased. However, the wealthy landowners were offended that the chancellor neglected their interests for the sake of other segments of the population. Having great political influence in Prussia, the junkers in 1894 were able to dismiss Caprivi.

Chancellors changed frequently until 1900, when By became the new head of government. von Bülow, who actively supported the policy of "pan-Germanism" aimed at establishing world domination. On his initiative, the Pannimetsky Union was created - an organization of an openly chauvinistic persuasion, which united conservatives, national liberals and the military. their plans envisaged the expansion of Germany to the West - against England and France to the East (the so-called "Drang nach Osten"), primarily against Russia, and to the Middle East. Military spending grew - in 1913 they accounted for almost half of the country's total spending. Enormous funds were allocated for the construction of the navy, and on the eve of the First World War, Germany became the second naval power after Great Britain.

at the end of the 19th century. by volume industrial production Germany came in second place in the world, and in terms of economic development overtook the UK and overtook the US. The prerequisite for such a dynamic development of the country's economy was the unification of German lands and the formation of the German Empire in 1871, which completed the formation of a single internal market and the industrial revolution. This was also facilitated by the presence of significant natural resources, in particular deposits of coal and iron ore, the experience of economic development in other countries, a 5 billion indemnity from defeated France, high level concentration of production and capital, agricultural productivity, etc.

The beginning of the 1970s is known in German history as the years of "Gründerstvo" (from German - to found). In 1871-1873. 857 new industrial associations with billions of dollars of capital were founded. The railway network has doubled in size. At the expense of French gold, the state began to pay its citizens their debts for previous state and military loans. Thousands of Germans invested in shares of new companies, receiving huge dividends and demonstrating their patriotism and faith in the future of the German Empire. The economic boom continued until the European economic crisis in 1873. Over the next six years, the prices of the nation's agricultural and industrial products plummeted, with almost 20% of newly founded companies going bankrupt. Cheap grain from Russia and the United States reduced the income of large landowners - junkers. A direct consequence of the economic crisis was a huge emigration, especially from the overcrowded rural areas of Prussia. During the 1970s, about 600,000 Germans left for South and North America.

In the 1980s, the revival of German industry began. Several dozen monopolies were created every year, and joint-stock companies with large capital arose.

Monopoly (from the Greek monos - one, poleo - sell) - a capitalist association that monopolized, by agreement among themselves, individual branches of production in order to squeeze out and conquer competitors, as well as to obtain monopoly profits. The emergence of monopolies is a natural result of the concentration of production and capital. Monopolies have forms: cartel, syndicate, trust, concern. The first monopolies arose as early as the manufacturing period of capitalist production on the basis of merchant guilds and companies of adventurers in the form of various merchant societies.

In the period 1882-1895. the number of established industrial companies increased by 4.6%, and enterprises employing more than 500 people - by 90%. Among the largest can be identified: "Rhenish-Westphalian iron foundry cartel", "German union of rolling mills", "Rhine-Westphalian coal syndicate" and the like. This made it possible to increase the smelting of iron and steel by 6 times, and coal mining by 3 times. At the end of the XIX century. In terms of production of iron and steel, Germany came in second place in the world, behind only the United States. In the first decades of the 20th century. The decisive role in the industry was played by the Thyssen metallurgical concerns, the I.G. Farbenindustri chemical concern, the General Electric Company (AEG) electrical engineering concern, and others.

Simultaneously with the concentration of production, there was a concentration of capital. The leading place was occupied by the German Bank, the Dresden Bank, the National Bank of Germany. The owners of large industrial enterprises joined the boards of banks, creating powerful financial and industrial groups. In the first decade of the 20th century. 9 major German banks concentrated in their hands more than 80% of banking capital. German capital was actively involved in the construction of railways, invested in underdeveloped countries, and contributed to the expansion of German foreign economic relations.

Agriculture was dominated by large cadet farms (more than 100 hectares of land), in which hired labor was used, agricultural machines were widely used, the achievements of agronomic science were introduced, which made it possible to significantly increase productivity. There was a considerable stratum of wealthy peasants - Grosbauerіv, who practically provided Germany with food and supported the policy of protectionism pursued by the government, which should save them from competition from foreign producers.

The high rates of economic development in Germany after 1871 led to the displacement of British products in world markets. German industry demanded new markets and stimulated the foreign policy activity of the state. But in order to win a "place in the sun", it was necessary to oust rivals from the colonies, primarily England. Anglo-German rivalry became decisive in the territorial division of the world.

German industrialists, united in the Pannimetsky Union, came up with the idea of ​​creating a colonial empire in Africa, South America and the Middle East. The attention of politicians in Berlin was riveted to the Transvaal with rich deposits of gold and diamonds. Most of the mines were under the control of the South African Company, which enjoyed the support of the London bankers. The active penetration of German capital into South Africa began with financing by a group of banks headed by the "Deutsche Bank" Siemens of the construction of a railway that connected the capital of the Transvaal - Pretoria - with the ocean coast. In the end, the German colonial capital managed to establish control over financial system Transvaal. At the same time, broad prospects opened up for Germany's economic penetration into Turkey. In 1898, the Turkish sultan agreed to grant Germany a concession for the construction of the Bosphorus-Baghdad railway and further to the Persian Gulf.

Baghdad Railway - the name of the railway line (approximately 2400 km) connecting the Bosporus with the Persian Gulf, 1898 German Kaiser Wilhelm II traveled to Palestine in the "holy places" of Christianity. In a public lecture in Damascus, he declared himself a friend of 300 million Muslims and their Caliph, the Turkish Sultan. As a result of this visit, the German Bank received an order to finance construction from 1899. Baghdad railway, which should pass through all of Asia Minor to Baghdad and further to the Persian Gulf. Thus, German influence in the Ottoman Empire was strengthened and conditions were created for the further penetration of Germany into the Near and Middle East. According to contemporaries. The Baghdad railway was supposed to be "a loaded pistol at the temple of England." The granting of a concession by Turkey to Germany caused an aggravation of the international situation. Construction was completed in 1934-1941. private English and French companies,

Berlin abandoned its claims to South Africa, counting on British support for its plans for Turkey.

In the struggle for colonies, German diplomacy tried to use the contradictions between the great powers. At the beginning of the XX century. (in 1905 and 1911) Germany provoked the Moroccan crises. In March 1905, during his stay in the Moroccan port of Tangier, Emperor Wilhelm II declared that he considered Morocco, which was in the sphere of influence of France, an independent country and Germany would not tolerate the domination of any state in Morocco. The negative reaction of Paris was predictable, but Wilhelm II increased the heat with a reminder of the successes of the German army in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871. Frank German blackmail forced France to agree to consider the question of Morocco at an international conference that began in January 1906. France was supported by England and Russia and, unexpectedly for Germany, by Italy, which, back in 1900, received France's consent to seize Cyrenaica and Tripolitania and thus gave her a debt of sorts. At the conference, it was decided that Morocco would remain formally independent state, however, France and Italy received exclusive control over the Moroccan police and financial system. French penetration into Morocco became more and more palpable. In the spring of 1911 French troops under the pretext of suppressing the uprising of the Moroccan tribes occupied the capital of Morocco - the city of Fetz. And this time, Germany intervened with a “Panther jump.” In July 1911, the German warship Panther anchored in the Moroccan port of Agadir. was successful.The British government declared that in the event of a conflict, Great Britain would not remain neutral and would support its ally France.Berlin was forced to give in.On November 8, 1911, the Franco-German agreement was signed, according to which Germany renounced claims to Morocco for insignificant compensation in the form part of the French Congo attached to German Cameroon.

In South America, Germany took control of Chile, in whose economy German capital poured in, the volume of trade exceeded English and American, the armed forces were under German control. Germany organized a wide emigration here, creating compact colonies with pan-Nimets ideology.

Particularly tense was the Anglo-German naval confrontation associated with the implementation by Germany of the great naval program of 1898, which provided for the allocation of more than 300 million marks of annual appropriations for the construction of new ships. Although the overall ratio of ships by tonnage remained in favor of England, Germany came close to her in terms of the number of the most powerful dreadnoughts. Negotiations between the two countries on the limitation of naval forces ended in vain and the arms race continued.

The Italo-Turkish War of 1911 and the Ballet of the Encounter War of 1912-1913. became a test for the Austro-German bloc and accelerated Germany's preparations for war. In 1914 alone, it was planned to allocate 1.5 billion marks for military needs. German General base believed that in 1914 the most appropriate for the start of the war, since Germany was significantly ahead of the Entente countries in terms of readiness. Any delay could be dangerous, the German strategists believed, because England, France and Russia had the opportunity to radically change the situation, which would lead to the loss of Germany's advantages. Having set a course for war, German diplomacy tried to ensure the participation of its ally, Austria-Hungary, which was assigned the role of the initiator of the military conflict.

TO early XIX V. The "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" included more than 300 states. These states were formally subordinate to the emperor and the imperial diet, but in practice they had complete independence. Napoleon's conquests ended the existence of the Holy Roman Empire. From 1806 to 1813, the Confederation of the Rhine was formed in the territories of West Germany, which fell under the control of France. After the defeat of Napoleon at Leipzig in 1813, the Confederation of the Rhine collapsed.

At the Congress of Vienna, the German Confederation was created - an association of states under the hegemony of the Austrian Habsburgs, consisting of 34 states and 4 free cities. The ruling body of the German Confederation was the so-called Federal Diet. The presidency of the union belonged to Austria.

The German Union lasted until 1866 and was liquidated after the defeat of Austria in the war with Prussia. Under the name of the North German Confederation, a new state arose. The management of the union was given to the Prussian king ("president"). The southern German states remained outside the union: Bavaria, Saxony, Württemberg, Baden, etc. Thus, the unification of Germany was not completed. This problem was solved by the Franco-Prussian war.

On September 19, 1870, German troops surrounded Paris. The General Staff of the German army was located in the Mirror Hall of the Palace of Versailles. It was here that Otto von Bismarck decided to announce the unification of Germany into a single state. The great successes in the war against France, which was waged by the already united army under Prussian leadership, gave rise to a wave of patriotic upsurge in the German states. The South German powers, who hoped for French help in the fight against Prussian hegemony, joined the North German Confederation during the course of the war.

On December 9, 1870, the Reichstag of the North German Confederation decided that the already de facto united state should be called the German Empire. On January 18, 1871, its creation was solemnly proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors. King of Prussia 74-year-old Wilhelm I was declared Kaiser, hereditary emperor of all Germany. The imperial constitution consolidated the hegemony of Prussia in a united Germany. Bismarck was appointed chancellor of the new state. The emergence of Germany in the center of Europe radically changed the balance of power. The further struggle for the spheres of influence of the young militarized state, which arose thanks to three aggressive wars, determined the tragic history of the world in the first half of the next, 20th century.

On January 28, 1871, an armistice was concluded with France. Most of the French forts, weapons and ammunition were transferred to the German troops, Paris paid 200 million francs indemnity. By this time, German troops had occupied over 1/3 of the territory of France with a population of over 10 million people.

On February 26, a preliminary peace treaty was signed at Versailles. On March 1, German troops entered Paris. But after receiving news of the ratification of the preliminary treaty by the National Assembly of France, they were withdrawn from the French capital on March 3.

In the struggle against the Paris Commune, the Germans assisted the Versailles government of Thiers. At the same time, during the diplomatic negotiations, the leaders of Germany tried to use the difficult situation of France in order to worsen the terms of the peace treaty for her. According to the Peace of Frankfurt on May 10, 1871, France handed over to Germany the industrially developed and strategically important regions of Alsace and the northeastern part of Lorraine, undertook to pay 5 billion francs of indemnity, before payment of which the German occupation troops were stationed in some regions of the country.

According to the new German constitution, the newly formed empire included 22 monarchies and several free cities. The constitution endowed these states with little autonomy, which was gradually reduced. Prussia accounted for over half of the entire territory of the German Empire and 60% of the country's population. The emperor was the head of the armed forces, appointed officials of the empire. Members of the upper house of the empire - the Bundesrat - were appointed by the governments of the allied states. The chairman of the chamber was the chancellor, appointed by the Prussian king. The rejection of any bill depended on Prussia.

The lower house of parliament retained the name Reichstag. He was elected first for 3 years, then (since 1887) for 5 years "by means of general and direct elections with secret ballot." In fact, the Reichstag had no real power. The share of local governments mainly accounted for the implementation of imperial laws.