Ancient ancient Indian civilization. Ancient Indian Civilization Ancient Indian Civilization

The relevance of the work lies in the fact that the study of ancient India is of great interest for the study of not only India itself, but also the historical process as a whole, because it allows, using the example of one of the largest countries in the East, to trace both the general patterns of this process and the specific features of the historical development of this country. , to determine the contribution made by it to the treasury of world civilization.

Achievements in archeology, history, linguistics and literary criticism make it possible to take a fresh approach to assessing many historical events and cultural facts of the past, to revise some traditional ideas.

ancient civilization of india differs from the civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Greece in that its traditions have been continuously preserved to the present day. In fact, India is the country with the oldest continuous cultural traditions in the world.

In the III-II millennium BC. BC, and possibly even earlier, in the Indus Valley there was one of the greatest civilizations of antiquity. Science learned about this little-known culture of ancient India much later than about other civilizations - in the 20s. XX century, - and it turned out to be not easy to enter it into world history: she asked researchers too many difficult and insoluble questions. It is customary to call it Proto-Indian, or Indus - after the name of the Indus River, the main waterway of this territory, or Harappa - after the name of one of the main excavation sites in Harappa, Montgomery County, Pakistan.

At the same time, not only the originality and comparative remoteness of India from other centers of world culture, but also the conditions in which it developed, give grounds in the final analysis to consider this civilization to be primary, both in terms of independence and independence of its development, and in terms of more from the point of view of the uniqueness of its appearance and character, the uniqueness of some of its initial structural principles.

The purpose of the work is to consider the civilization of ancient India.

The goal is achieved by solving the following tasks:

Explore the rise of civilization. Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro;

Reveal the formation of states in the Ganges valley;

Describe the community-caste system;

Consider northern India in the middle of the 1st millennium BC;

The object of the work is Ancient Indian civilization.

Subject of work - feature of Indian civilization.

The methodological basis of this study was the general scientific dialectical method and individual private scientific methods.

1. The emergence of civilization. Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro

One of the most difficult questions in the study of the Harappan civilization is the question of its origin. Various points of view were expressed - about the Sumerian basis of the Harappan culture, about its creation by the Indo-Aryan tribes, in connection with which the Harappan civilization was considered as Vedic. The well-known archaeologist R. Heine-Geldern even wrote that civilization on the Indus arose suddenly, since no traces of previous development were allegedly found. Behind last years new important materials about the local origin of this culture have been collected. Unfortunately, groundwater has so far prevented archaeologists from following the lowest slopes at Mohenjo-Daro.

Archaeological excavations in Balochistan and Sind showed that here in the IV - III millennium BC. e. there were agricultural cultures that have much in common with the early Harappan culture and with which the Harappan settlements maintained contact for a long time. In Sind, agricultural cultures appear later, which suggests the penetration of some tribes here from the regions of Balochistan and southern Afghanistan.

In the Indus Valley, Harappan settlements appear, obviously, not immediately and not simultaneously. Probably, from some one center, where urban culture first developed, there was a gradual resettlement of its creators. In this regard, of particular interest are the studies of the French archaeologist J. M. Casal of the Amri settlement, who established stratigraphy from the pre-Harappan period to the late Harappan period. Here one can trace the local development of cultures: from the time when most pottery was made by hand, without the potter's wheel, when buildings were just appearing, and the use of metals was just beginning, to more advanced phases, marked by painted ceramics and more durable, mud-brick buildings. The lower layers of the pre-Harappan period have analogies with the early agricultural cultures of Balochistan, in the later layers, ceramics of the early Harappan settlements of the Indus Valley appear. Finally, excavations have shown that the traditions typical of the Amri culture coexist with those of the Harappans.

In Harappa itself, under the city fortifications, ceramics of the Amri culture were found, and in the lower layers of Mohsnjo-Daro - ceramics of the Balochistan cultures, which obviously indicates not only close contacts of the Indian settlements with the agricultural cultures of Balochistan and Sindh, but also that the Harappan civilization has local roots. It arose on the basis of the tradition of agricultural cultures.

Excavations by Pakistani archaeologists in Kot Diji (not far from modern Khaipur) showed that in the pre-Harappan period there already existed a highly developed culture: scientists discovered the citadel and the actual residential quarters that arose, according to radiocarbon analysis, in the XXVII-XXVI centuries. to i. e. Pottery from Kot-Didji of the early period has analogies with the ceramics of the agricultural settlements of Sindh and Balochistan, and later - with Harappa. This made it possible to trace the evolution of local traditions to the actual Harappan, dating back to XXI-XX centuries. BC e. The explicit pre-Harappan period was discovered by Indian archaeologists during excavations in Kalibangan (Rajasthan), where on one hill there were settlements of the predecessors of the Harappans, and on the next - the buildings of the creators of the Harappan culture. The pottery of the pre-Harappan settlement has many features in common with the pottery of Amri and Kot-Didji. Thus, scientists were able to trace the development of the Harappan culture on the basis of more ancient local traditions.

At the same time, the Harappan civilization was a new stage, a qualitative leap in the development of the ancient cultures of Hindustan, which marked the emergence of an urban-type civilization.

Of great importance, obviously, was the Indus river system, which created favorable conditions for the development of material culture and the economy and for the creation of urban settlements, handicrafts and trade. It is no coincidence that most of all Harappan settlements were located along the banks of the Indus and its tributaries. Later, Harappan settlements appeared in the upper reaches of the Ganges and Yamuna (modern Jamna).

In the 1920s, when the scientific study of the Harappan civilization began, there was an opinion about the relatively narrow boundaries of this culture. Indeed, in the beginning, Harappan settlements were found only in the Indus Valley. Now, as a result of modern archaeological research, it became clear that the Harappan civilization was spread over a vast territory: more than 1100 km from north to south and more than 1600 km from west to east.

Excavations on the Kathiaar peninsula showed that the population gradually moved south, colonizing new territories. At present, the Harappan settlement at the mouth of the Narbad River is considered the southernmost, but it can be assumed that the Harappans penetrated even further south. They rushed to the east, subjugating more and more new areas. Archaeologists have discovered a Harappan settlement near modern-day Allahabad. This is how they were created various options Harappan culture, although in general it was a single culture with established traditions.

It can be assumed that some diversity within this huge civilization reflected a different ethnic basis and an unequal level of development of those areas where the creators of this civilization appeared.

Currently, many researchers conditionally date the beginning of the Harappan culture to 2300 BC. e., and the period of "sunset" - 18 AD. BC e. (1750 BC). Such a chronology indicates the existence of contacts between Mesopotamia and the settlements of the Indus Valley as early as the pre-Harappan period.

The existence of large cities, the presence of a system of urban construction planning in the country testify to the high degree of development of the Harappan civilization.

As a result of excavations, several large cities were discovered. The largest of them are Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.

Mohenjo-Daro occupied an area of 2.5 square meters. km., and its population, according to some scientists, could be estimated at 35 thousand people (sometimes a larger figure is given - up to 100 thousand people).

Judging by the excavations, the urban centers had a similar planning system: large towns consisted of two main parts - the citadel on the western side, where, obviously, the city authorities were located, and the so-called lower city, where the main residential buildings were concentrated. The residential part of the city usually had the shape of a rectangle. The citadel was built on a high brick platform, towering over the rest of the city. It also had to protect against floods, which were a terrible disaster for the cities of the Indus Valley. Communication between the two parts was apparently limited. For example, in Kalibangan, only two entrances were discovered during excavations, connecting the citadel with the "lower city". If necessary, these entrances could, apparently, be closed and thereby fence off the city authorities from ordinary residents. At the edge of the citadel in Harappa, a special precession road passed, along which troops moved, as well as various processions. The citadel was well fortified with powerful stacks and towers. Excavations at Kalibangan have unearthed the massive brick wall of the citadel. Inside it were buildings of a religious and, obviously, administrative nature. In the citadel of Mohenjo-Daro there was a huge pool (width 7 m, length 12 m, depth almost 2.5 m), which may have been part of a religious complex and served for special ritual ablutions. With the help of a special system, fresh water was constantly supplied to the pool from the well. Archaeologists have unearthed steps leading, it is believed, to the second floor of the structure. Not far from the pool were public barns for storing grain and a kind of assembly hall, or market, according to some scholars, which had several rows of stone bases for columns (the columns were wooden and therefore did not survive).

Residential buildings were of various sizes. Some reached three floors (the remains of stairs testify to this) and ended flat roofs. These were the dwellings of wealthy citizens. There were no special windows in them, and light and air came through small holes that were made in the upper part of the walls. The doors of the house were wooden. For the construction of roofs, in addition to wood, compacted silt was also used. Each house had special utility rooms and a yard with a kitchen for cooking. The kitchen had special hearths, as well as large vessels for storing grain and oil. Bread was baked in special ovens. Small livestock were also kept in the yards.

The poor lived in huts and barracks. In Harappa, near the walls of the citadel, not far from the grounds for threshing grain, two rows of buildings were discovered, each of which was one tiny room. Similar dwellings were located in Mohenjo-Daro, where impoverished artisans, temporary workers and slaves lived. On the streets of the cities there were shops and workshops of artisans.

After several centuries of prosperity, the "decline" of the Harappan civilization came. Until recently, the decline of Indian centers was usually explained by external factors: the invasion of foreign tribes, identified, as a rule, with the Aryans. In the northern regions, the onset of the crisis was more rapid; in the South, far from large centers, Harappan traditions survived longer. Thus, the process proceeded differently in different regions. The weakening of trade contacts with Mesopotamia was probably also of considerable importance. Not only merchants, but also craftsmen and farmers were directly connected with this sphere of economic activity.

To date, it has been established quite firmly and definitely: the Harappan culture of the Indus Valley has disappeared, having almost no significant impact on the culture of the Indo-Aryans that came to replace it with a gap of several centuries, who practically laid the foundation for the ancient Indian center of civilization anew. The new focus was formed mainly in the Ganges valley, in areas separated from the centers of the Harappan culture by many hundreds, if not thousands of kilometers. But the Harappan civilization gave a significant impetus to the development of the material culture of the Indo-Aryans.

With the extinction of the main centers of the Harappan civilization, the developed building techniques and skills did not disappear without a trace, but indirectly affected the planning of the settlements of the new people - the Aryans, who settled at the end of the 2nd - the middle of the 1st millennium BC. in the northwestern regions of India, and then moved to the southeast, into the Ganges valley and along the river. Jumna.

2. Formation of states in the Ganges valley

North India in the 2nd millennium BC. e. Indo-Aryan languages spread, the speakers of which, calling themselves Aryans, came to the country and brought elements of a different cultural tradition.

Civilization in the Indus Valley, despite the high level of development it has achieved, still remained a phenomenon of regional significance. The formation of this way of life, which gave ancient India unity with all its diversity, began at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. and was associated with the emergence of states in the Ganges valley. It was these areas that were destined to become the center of culture and statehood.

The main achievement of the Vedic Indians was the economic development and stable settlement of most of the Ganges valley, previously covered with jungle. Early outbreaks here (for example, Chirand in Bihar) were extremely rare. The offensive into the Ganges valley was carried out from the south, from where the agricultural tribes of the Dravidians and Munda penetrated, and from the north - the tribes of the foothills of the Himalayas. But the main direction of colonization, which culminated in the creation of permanent settlements and cities, was from northwest to southeast, from Punjab and Rajasthan.

The process of development of the Ganges valley was long and spontaneous. The Indo-Aryan tribes came into contact with the "aboriginal" population, adapted to the local conditions of life and economic activity. Judging by historical legends and myths, at that time they already considered themselves residents of India. It was very difficult to move through the territory, completely overgrown with forest, but the Indo-Aryans knew iron and were mobile. They moved along the rivers.

By the middle of the 1st millennium BC. the Ganges valley was largely developed, despite the fact that significant areas still remained under forests and swamps, especially in the lower reaches of the river. Excavations in Atranjikher, Jodhpur and in the areas adjacent to the Ganges from the west show that iron in this area is unlikely to have appeared before the 11th century. BC.; the wide distribution of tools from it was observed in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. Due to its cheapness and availability, it quickly replaced stone and copper as a material for the production of weapons and tools.

Was quite significant specific gravity cattle breeding. From domestic animals cows, buffaloes, sheep, goats, donkeys, camels, horses were known. The main wealth of the Indian was considered cattle, primarily bulls, which were draft power, and cows, which provided the most important food. In beliefs, gradually the cow begins to occupy a special place. Its importance in the economy was the decisive factor that led to the emergence of the cult of the cow as one of the main elements of the religious practice of Hinduism.

The Vedic Indians did not create such developed and powerful urban centers as the Harappans. Although the inhabitants of the Ganges basin sometimes founded their settlements on the site of former Harappan cities, the old traditions of building art have been largely lost. Gradually, the cities turned into centers of concentration of handicrafts, which emerged as an independent branch of the economy. They produced agricultural implements, vehicles, fabrics, utensils made of metal, stone, wood and clay, various decorations. Excavations have shown a high level of ceramic production in the ancient cities of the Ganges valley. The Vedic period is marked by an increase in exchange between individual tribes, regular trade.

The process of state formation in ancient India was long. Authorities arose gradually and grew, as a rule, from tribal governments. The states themselves were not large for a long time - they covered the territory of one tribe or union of tribes. They got their name from the name of the strongest of them. By the middle of the 1st millennium BC. in the most developed regions of the Ganges valley, the process of turning tribal self-government bodies into state ones was completed. The tribal leader - the raja at this time often acts as an autocratic ruler. The ruler usually belonged to the most noble, rich and numerous family. It is known that royal dynasties already existed in the Vedic period. Royal power was mainly hereditary, passed from father to eldest son. The popular assembly was involved in the discussion of the issue of succession to the throne only when this order, now considered normal, was violated for various reasons. Raja was the supreme manager of state property, primarily land. He commanded an army. The tsar headed the administrative apparatus, apparently, he was also the supreme judge, he himself examined some cases and could even personally punish the guilty.

The special position of the raja back in the Vedic period led to the fact that state power began to be perceived as sacred, and its bearer was declared the incarnation of one or another deity. The king relied on his relatives, who usually occupied important positions in the state apparatus, they got most of the military booty. Other powerful families were grouped around the court.

The state apparatus was not yet ramified, but a number of permanent positions had already been determined: court priest, military commander, treasurer, tax collector, etc.

3. Communal-caste system

Dating back to the ancient Indian varnas and consecrated by Hinduism, the caste system has been the basis of the social structure of India since ancient times. The word "varna" corresponds to the concepts of "type", "category", "color". Since ancient times, it has been used in India to single out and contrast the main social strata of society with each other. The traditions recorded in the Rig Veda proceed from the fact that the division of society into opposing layers is eternal, that from the mouth of the first man Purusha arose the varna of the Brahmin priests, from his hands the varna of the Kshatriyas, from the hips the varna of simple farmers and cattle breeders, i.e. ordinary vaishya community members. But from the feet of Purusha appeared the fourth and lowest varna of the poor and inferior, the varna of the Shudras. The three highest varnas, genetically related to the Indo-Aryans, were considered honorary, especially the first two of them. Representatives of all these Aryan varnas were called "twice-born", because in relation to them the rite of the second birth was performed. The rite of the second birth gave the right to learn the profession and occupations of the ancestors, after which everyone could become a householder, that is, the father of his family. The fourth varna of the Shudras arose and was formed later than the three Aryans, so that it included all those who, by birth, did not belong to the first three. The varna of the Shudras was, at least in the beginning, the varna of the disenfranchised. Shudra could not claim a high social position, sometimes even an independent household, did not have the right to study the Vedas and participate in rituals and religious practices on an equal basis with representatives of other varnas. The fate of a craftsman or servant, engaging in heavy and despised types of labor - that was his lot.

Over time, some changes took place in the position of the varnas, the essence of which was to reduce the status of the third and some increase in the status of the fourth of them. The hereditary status of the Brahmins was much more rigid: it was very difficult to lose it, even when the Brahmin ceased to be a priest and was engaged in other, much more worldly affairs, but even more difficult, it was almost impossible to regain it. The proportion of non-caste outcasts, untouchables (Harijans, as they were called later), who performed the most difficult and dirty work, greatly increased. We can assume that by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. the two higher varnas already quite distinctly opposed the two lower ones.

The system of four varnas that has developed in this way has become a very stable basis for dividing Indian society into unshakable categories-estates. A person is born in his own varna and forever belongs to it, remains in it. In his varna, he takes a wife, his descendants remain forever in his varna, continue his work. Birth in one or another varna is the result of a person's behavior in his past births. The religious consecration of the varna system proved to be very effective. This system not only did not disintegrate over time, but, on the contrary, became more and more rigid, stronger, more branched. To be outside the system meant practically being outside society, in a certain sense outside the law, that is, in the position of a slave.

The system of many hundreds and even thousands of castes that replaced the four ancient varnas has become much more convenient under the new conditions. Caste (jati, i.e. clan) is a closed endogamous group of people, usually hereditarily employed in a certain field of activity. Those who stood outside the existing castes or were born from a mixed marriage, for the time being, were a kind of candidate for inclusion in the caste system. Tribes, sects, groups of persons of similar occupations could and did become castes. Those who were engaged in unclean professions stood out in a special group. They either belonged to the lowest castes, or generally stood outside the castes and were considered untouchable, those whose touch could defile members of other castes, especially Brahmins. The fundamental difference between the new castes and the old varnas was that the castes were corporations, that is, they had a clear internal organization. The castes included a much smaller number of members compared to the former varnas. The caste strictly guarded the interests of its members. But the main principle in the transformation of varnas into castes remained unchanged: the rule formulated by ancient Brahminism and strictly guarded by Hinduism was that everyone belongs to his caste by birth and must remain in it all his life. And not only stay. But also choose a wife from your caste, raise children in the spirit of caste norms and customs. Whoever he becomes, no matter how rich he becomes, or, on the contrary, how he descends, a high-caste brahmin will always remain a brahmin, and an untouchable chandala will always remain untouchable.

4. Northern India in the middle of the 1st millennium BC

The economic integration that contributed to the political consolidation of the Indians in the middle of the 1st millennium BC was an important factor but not the only one, and not even the most important one. A much greater role in the consolidation of the Indians as an ethnic group, and even more so the Indian civilization as a great socio-cultural integrity, was played by the processes that took place at that time in the spiritual and religious sphere and for millennia determined the appearance of the entire culture of India, the spiritual values of its civilization. These processes began with the fact that the ancient Vedas began to acquire the already mentioned interpretations and commentaries, which were vigorously developed by the efforts of the priests of various Brahmin castes. On the basis of active religious searches, complex philosophical constructions arose - first of all, the Upanishads, in which the problems of being and non-being, life and death, the root causes of existence, the supreme Absolute, etc. were debated. It should be especially emphasized that all these abstract arguments were practically the exclusive property of the Brahmins, who jealously guarded their monopoly on the education, study and commentary of sacred texts.

During this period, a trend towards political consolidation was seen in North India. Small states arose, which gradually became larger and transformed into early states, the rivalry between them became more and more fierce. By the middle of the 1st millennium BC. in the Ganges valley and in its vicinity there were about 16 relatively large states, most of which had already established a hereditary monarchy and only a few practiced various forms of oligarchic or aristocratic rule with elected political leaders. The rise of political centers in the valley led to the growth and strengthening of cities, to the development of handicrafts and trade exchange. Cities, which were primarily fortified fortresses, began to play a significant role in the economy. In the sphere of agrarian relations, the state also played a very important role, which acted as the supreme manager of the land fund. The state regulated taxes and duties of the population. The main form of land ownership was the community.

Conclusion

The civilization of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro was located in the Indus Valley in the XXIII-XIX centuries BC. e. It was a highly developed society for that time. This is evidenced by the presence of writing, various crafts, and trade.

At the moment, there are endless disputes among scientists about the origin and religion of this civilization, since there are no reliable facts confirming or refuting this or that hypothesis.

ancient india in a number of basic parameters, it is close to the states of the Middle Eastern antiquity. Power-property and centralized redistribution also dominated here, there were no free European markets and private property. India belongs entirely to the traditional East and has nothing to do with antiquity, although the Indo-Aryans are genetically quite close to the ancient Greeks. There is a significant difference between the Middle East and Indian regions. The difference lies in civilization, in cultural traditions, in historically conditioned forms of organization of society, in everything that is reflected in the form of caste-caste and communal systems.

Ancient Indian culture had a great impact on the culture of other countries. Since ancient times, its traditions have been intertwined with the traditions of the East. During the period of the Harappan civilization, cultural and trade relations were established with Mesopotamia, Iran, and Central Asia. A little later, cultural and economic contacts appeared with Egypt, Southeast Asia, and the Far East.

Bibliographic list

Antonova, K.A. History of India / K.A. Antonova. - M.: Academy, 2009. - 608s.
Arthur, L. Besham. The Miracle That Was India / Arthur L. Besham. - M.: Nauka, 2007. - 319 p.
Bongard-Levin, G.M. India in antiquity / G.M. Bongard-Levin, G.F. Ilyin.- M.: Nauka, 2005. - 637p.
Weinberg, B.I. History and culture of Central Asia in antiquity / B.I. Weinberg, B.Ya. Stavisky. - M.: Nauka, 2006. - 365 p.
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ancient indian civilization

Feature of Indian civilization

Cities and settlements

Problems of ethnogenesis

Main occupations of the population

Language and writing

Decline of the Harappan cities

Formation of states in the Ganges valley

Development of the Ganges Valley

Emergence of the state

The social structure of the Indo-Aryans

Communal - caste system

Northern India in the middle of the 1st millennium BC

Mughal Empire

The British in India (XVIII - mid-XIX century)

Conclusion

The study of ancient India is of great interest for the study of not only India itself, but also the historical process as a whole, because it allows us, using the example of one of the largest countries of the East, to trace both the general patterns of this process and the specific features of the historical development of this country, to determine the contribution made by it to treasure trove of world civilization.

The ancient civilization of India differs from the civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Greece in that its traditions have been continuously preserved to the present day. Before archaeological excavations, the peasants of Egypt or Iraq knew nothing about the culture of their ancestors, and their Greek counterparts, most likely, had only a vague idea of the glory of Athens in the time of Pericles. The situation was different in India. The first Europeans who visited this country met residents who were aware of the antiquity of their culture, even exaggerating it and declaring that it had not undergone major changes over the millennia. In the legends that are known to the average Indian to this day, the names of mythical leaders who lived a thousand years before our era are mentioned, and the orthodox brahmins still repeat hymns composed even earlier during daily prayers. In fact, India is the country with the oldest continuous cultural traditions in the world.

The earliest centers of urban culture and the first proto-states in North India, primarily in indus valley, arose in the III millennium BC. It is from the III millennium BC. e. civilization - if civilization is understood as an organized system of government over a relatively large area - almost simultaneously began to develop in the valleys of the rivers Nile, Euphrates and Indus. Very little is known about the nature of the earliest societies of India, due to the fact that Indian writing harappans And mohenjo-daro has not yet been deciphered, and because the well-known Sanskrit texts Aryans the Ganges valleys are devoted mainly to religious and philosophical problems and almost do not touch on politics, history, social structure and economic relations. Science is still not quite clear even the question of how primary Indian civilization is - in the sense that it clearly received many important cultural impulses for its initial development from outside. At the same time, not only the originality and comparative remoteness of India from other centers of world culture, but also the conditions in which it developed, give grounds in the final analysis to consider this civilization to be primary, both in terms of independence and independence of its development, and in terms of more from the point of view of the uniqueness of its appearance and character, the uniqueness of some of its initial structural principles.

The emergence of civilization. Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro

Modern archeology suggests that the settlement of India by Neolithic farmers mainly came from the north, through Iran and Afghanistan. VI - IV millennia BC the first Neolithic settlements in the foothills of the Indus Valley date back, and approximately the 24th century. BC. - majestic monuments of developed urban culture, known from excavations in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.

More than four thousand years ago, a highly developed urban culture was created in the Indus basin, which was not inferior to such centers of world civilization as Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, and in a number of respects surpassed them. The discovery and study of the Harappan culture (named after the excavation site in Harappa, Montgomery district, modern Pakistan) was of extremely great scientific importance.

After these discoveries, it was no longer possible to assert, as many scientists used to do, that India "never knew a civilization marked by the widespread use of bronze", that it was separated by a solid wall from other states of the ancient East and was sharply inferior to them in terms of development.

It is difficult to say how much the Sumerian culture influenced the emergence of the centers of Indian civilization, but the very fact of influence from the more developed Mesopotamia is undeniable. Until relatively recently, the Harappan civilization was sometimes declared a provincial variant of the Sumerian.

Excavations in the Indus Valley convincingly showed the antiquity, originality and autochthonous nature of Indian culture, which had developed long before the appearance of the Indo-Aryan tribes in the country. This dealt a blow to the theories, the authors of which linked the origin of civilization in the country with the arrival of the Aryans.

Distribution area and chronology

Settlements of the Harappan culture, discovered at first only in the Indus Valley, are now known over a vast territory - more than 1100 km from north to south and 1600 km from west to east. In terms of territory, the Harappan civilization significantly surpassed the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Among the numerous cities and settlements, the two main cities are best explored - Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, and Chanhu-Daro, Kalibangan, Banawali, Surkodata and Lothal. There are inscriptions on the seals of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa that have not yet been deciphered. The interpretation of this letter is one of the most important archaeological problems in the Indus Valley. The distribution area of this culture did not remain unchanged: the Harappans moved south and east, penetrating into more and more new areas. Scientists distinguish several zones within the range of its distribution - eastern, northern, central, southern, western and southeastern - with features characteristic of each zone.

Thus, the "developed Harappan period" is usually dated to 2200 - 2100 AD. before. AD, which allows you to transfer it initial stages several centuries ago - conditionally to 2500 - 2400. before. AD

The character of this civilization is so uniform that over the whole area of its distribution even bricks for buildings are usually of the same size and shape.

Cities and settlements

Big cities consisted of two main parts: the citadel - an artificial oblong platform 30-50 feet high and about 400x200 yards in area, where, in all likelihood, the local authorities, and possibly the priestly elite, were located. It was protected by battlements, public buildings were erected on it. Below the citadel was the city proper, covering an area of at least a square mile. The main streets, some up to 30 feet wide, were perfectly straight. They divided the city into large blocks, within which a network of narrow lanes wound. The houses, often two or more stories high, although of varying sizes, were all built according to the same plan: several rooms were arranged around a rectangular courtyard. The entrance usually led from a side alley, and the windows did not look out onto the street, which, because of this, was apparently a monotonous alternation of dreary brick walls. Brick-built city buildings (houses, palaces, granaries), pools with a well-established sewage system, and even shipyard-type structures connected by a canal to the river - all this not only indicates a high level of urban planning and, consequently, the entire urban civilization, but suggests the existence developed crafts, including bronze casting, as well as trade relations with neighbors, primarily with the Sumerian Mesopotamia, although there is no doubt that the inhabitants of the Indian cities did not show an inclination to borrow the technical achievements of a more developed culture. Excavations testify to a well-established water supply system, and the sewerage system, carefully designed, was perhaps the most advanced in the ancient East. Even the Roman civilization did not have such a plumbing system.

Large houses had their own wells, on the streets - wells for public use. On the streets of the cities there were shops and workshops of artisans, various public buildings, in particular the city market. Careful planning and improvement of cities, the presence of public buildings may indicate the existence of a centralized government. The regular layout of the streets and the strict uniformity throughout the Harappan culture of such details as units of weights and measures, the size of bricks, and even the layout of large cities suggest one centralized state rather than many free communities.

Perhaps the most striking feature of this culture is its extreme conservatism. In Mohenjo-Daro, nine layers of buildings were excavated. As the level of the ground rose due to periodic floods, new houses were built almost exactly on the site of the old ones, with very slight deviations in the plan of the foundation; for at least a millennium, the layout of the streets of the city remained unchanged.

The writing of the Indian cities did not change at all throughout their history.

The cities of the Indus Valley were, unlike the Mesopotamian ones, very short-lived. They flourished quickly and brightly, and just as quickly, for a hitherto unknown reason, fell into decay and disappeared from the face of the earth. Approximately the period of their life is limited to five or six centuries, from the end of the XXIV to the XVIII century. before. AD some evidence suggests that the decline of the centers of Indian urban culture began long before their disappearance and that it was associated with increasing disruption of normal life, a weakening of order and administration, and possibly a change in the course of the Indus and the flooding of cities.

Sindhu- this is how the inhabitants of the country that stretched along its banks called their river; it was known to the Greeks as indos, and the natives themselves are like the Indians. Easily and naturally, retaining its recognizable originality, it was transferred from Asia to Europe and the enchanting word sounded in many languages - India.

On the territory that in ancient times bore this general name and spread out in a vast triangle between the Arabian Sea, the Himalayas and the Bay of Bengal, at the end of the 20th century. there are three independent states: India itself, Bangladesh and Pakistan, through whose lands the legendary Indus flows.

In ancient times, the expanses of ancient India were inhabited Dravidians- short dark-skinned black-haired people with wide noses. Among the inhabitants of South India there are many of their descendants, remarkably reminiscent of their distant ancestors.

Civil strife, natural disasters, epidemics, invasions were a thing of the past, becoming milestones of a leisurely time. Over the centuries, the Dravidians were replaced by numerous tribes that differed from one another in their way of life, language, beliefs, culture, degree of development, and even appearance their representatives.

The inhabitants of the foothills, who did not know the northern winds under the protection of the Himalayas, looked with reverent awe at the highest mountains in the world, sincerely considering the dazzling peaks as the abode of revered gods.

Dependent on wildlife, the ancient Indians had a deep respect for the water element: after all, water is the key to a rich harvest, and harvest is life. The worship of water, dating back thousands of years, continues in modern times: until now, the Indians consider their most full-flowing Ganges river to be sacred ...

If even today vegetable world India is striking in its diversity and tropical splendor, but many, many centuries ago, forests covered almost its entire territory. They not only gave the ancient inhabitants of the fairyland wood for handicrafts, weapons, buildings and heating of dwellings, but also fed them with nuts, berries, bananas, mangoes, citrus fruits and other trees. The forests were also supplied with medicinal plants and spices, without which even then Indian cuisine was unthinkable. By the way, later it was the spices and incense, which were valued more than gold in Europe, that aroused such interest in India and, to a certain extent, "pushed" Christopher Columbus to the discovery of America ...

How did the ancient Indians live?

The ancient Indians hunted forest animals and domesticated some of them. To them we owe much to the fact that humanity has many domestic animals, from chicken to elephant.

However, the inhabitants of India had to wage a constant struggle with the forests, not only clearing land for fields and gardens, but also fighting the advancing jungle from day to day, risking encountering poisonous snake or fall prey to a predator.

The rural population was very numerous. The peasants grew several varieties of wheat, barley, sesame, beans, rice, planted gardens. In dry times, they resorted to artificial irrigation. Archaeological excavations made it possible to establish that almost every peasant household had cows, goats, sheep and poultry.

Many Indians kept dogs and cats. Of all domestic animals, cows were the most valued, considered the main wealth of the family. Often because of them there were even armed clashes.

Craftsmen settled in cities, with representatives of each profession living on the same street. There were, for example, streets of weavers, potters, and jewelers. Household and temple utensils, weapons, production tools were made of bronze and copper. Gold and silver were used for jewelry. Trade flourished. Trade relations with were especially developed.

Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa

History is reluctant to reveal its secrets. But sometimes they become known almost by accident. Once an Indian archaeologist R. D. Banerjee was excavating. Finding a wonderful monument of the 2nd century. BC, he was very happy and tried to finish the work faster, when he suddenly discovered the remains of a more ancient culture a little deeper.

So the famous rose from oblivion mohenjo-daro(Hill of the Dead), a whole city that existed more than 4 thousand years ago. An even more ancient city was found Harappa.

According to his name, everything created in that era is called the monuments of the Harappan culture.

Scientists have established that Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa are the two largest cities of the ancient civilization, possibly the capitals of large political associations. At the highest place in the city stood a citadel, fortified with powerful walls, where people usually escaped from floods. Inside the citadel was a huge pool for ritual ablutions. With the help of a special device, fresh water was supplied here.

The wide and straight streets of these cities are surprising, the extremely durable brick (even now it is difficult to split it), from which buildings were erected. The houses were two or even three stories high. Instead of windows, small holes were made in the thick walls for lighting: both the thickness of the walls and the tiny windows better protected from the Indian heat. Even the upper floors of the houses had running water to perform ablutions without leaving the dwelling.

Bronze, copper, stone sculptures found by archaeologists help to imagine what the inhabitants of Mohenjo-Daro looked like. Here is a dancer at the temple - young, long-legged, slender, with many bracelets on her arm. And here is the priest. He is very handsome. His eyes are half closed - the priest is immersed in prayer. His robe, thrown over his left shoulder, is decorated with an ornament in the form of a sacred shamrock. Carefully cut hair is intercepted by a wide ribbon falling down the back; on the forehead is a round buckle. The sculpture is made of white stearite, which has preserved traces of red paste. The eyes are made of white mother-of-pearl and this makes them seem alive.

Indian Vedas and division into castes

On special occasions, the priests recited hymns and incantations. The Hymn to Heaven and Earth invokes a blessing on the farmers:

May Heaven and Earth sprinkle us with honey,
Those that are soaked in honey
exude honey,
influence honey,
Those who sacrifice
and wealth to the gods,
Great glory, trophy and courage to us.

And here is how the spell sounds when building a house:

Here stand firmly, O hut,
Rich in horses
rich in cows
rich in joy
Rich in strength
rich in fat
rich in milk!
Rise to the great destiny!

This is glory Vedas- the oldest monuments of Indian writing. The most famous Vedas (which means "knowledge") are the Rigveda (Veda of hymns), the Yajurveda (Veda of sacrificial formulas), the Somaveda (Veda of chants), the Atharvaveda (Veda of incantations). Their authors are ancient poets and sages Rishi. Not everyone could study and even listen to the Vedas in Ancient India. It was a privilege dvijati- "twice-born". Who are they?

The society of ancient India was divided into castes (the Indians call them " jati"and scientists -" varnas"). Belonging to a caste was determined by the birth of a person and was inherited. Representatives of each caste were engaged from generation to generation in the same profession, worshiped the same gods, strictly followed the established rules in relation to each other and members of other castes. One of the hymns of the Rig Veda describes the emergence of castes as follows.

There was a mythical first man Purush. Brahmins came from his mouth, kshatriyas from his hands, vaisyas from his thighs, and sudras from his feet. Shudras were considered "ekajati" - "once born." How could members of the first three castes be born twice? IN childhood a complex ceremony was performed over the boys of the first three castes " upanayana"accompanied by solemn donning" upavita". After that, the boy was considered born a second time. The Shudras were not honored with such a rite.

The most honorable place in society was occupied, of course, by the Brahmins, who performed priestly duties, as they knew the sacred doctrine. They were called " avadhya» — « inviolable". The killing of a Brahmin was considered the greatest crime.

The king, the military nobility represented kshatriyas- "endowed with power." The well-known word rajah"(king, leader) refers specifically to the kshatriyas.

Free community members - farmers, cattle breeders, artisans, merchants - belonged to vaishyam.

The position of the Shudras in ancient Indian society was very difficult. They were not supposed to do anything except hard work everyday and humble service to the “twice-born”.

Kshatriya - a representative of the Indian warrior caste

States of ancient India

The development of ancient India sometimes seemed to be interrupted and reversed. So, for example, in the middle of 2 thousand BC. semi-nomadic tribes come and settle in India Aryans. Indian civilization is disappearing. There is a return to the primitive communal system. Only in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. states reappear. Cities also appear, but no longer large, characteristic of the Harappan culture, but small, very well fortified “puras”. The houses in them were stone, wooden, adobe, necessarily protected by an earthen rampart. Craftsmen reappear. Carpenters and blacksmiths enjoyed special respect among them.

In the lower reaches of the Ganges was Magadha- the largest and most powerful state of that time. It reached its highest power in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. , which united under its rule almost the entire territory of Hindustan. Favorable conditions are emerging for the development of the economy, the improvement political structure, flourishing culture.

In the 4th c. BC. emerged as a strong state Gupta that existed for nearly two centuries.

Nandas, Mauryas, Shungas, Kushans, Guptas - each of these Indian dynasties is interesting in its own way. The Nandas had one of the largest armies in the Ancient East. The first king of the Mauryan Empire was the legendary Chandragupta. Kanishka was the king of the vast, through which the Great Silk Road passed in antiquity.

This fabulous country also attracted the great conqueror of antiquity. His army crossed the Hindu Kush and split up in the valley of the Coffen River (now Kabul). One part of it, led by Alexander, moved north, the other - under the command of Perdikkas and Gefistion - crossed the Indus and prepared to give battle. However, the warriors were expected to have a plentiful meal and rest. The local raja Taxil not only did not intend to fight the Greek-Macedonians, but even gave them horses and elephants.

Along with King Taxil, history has preserved the name of the brave King Pora, the ruler of a powerful state in northwestern India, who, despite the numerical superiority of the aliens, decided to give them an open battle.

In 326 BC there was a fierce battle. The Indian army was defeated. Bleeding, Por stood before the conqueror and demanded that he be treated as a king should be treated. Alexander, admired by his courage, not only returned Porus his possessions, but even presented new lands.

Alexander failed to conquer all of India. In the conquered territories, he left governors. The last of them, Evdem, left India in 317 BC, that is, already 6 years after the death of Alexander the Great.

The contact of the two cultures turned out to be short-lived, but did not pass without a trace: the influence of Greek culture is noticeable in beautiful images North Indian Gandharian sculptures.

In the 2nd century BC. India broke up into many state formations, unable to repel the constant raids of the Parthians, Scythians and other nomads.

Buddhism and Hinduism in India

Indian history is full of surprises. To learn about one of them, let's go back a little. In 268 BC the Indian throne was occupied by the powerful ruler of the Mauryan dynasty Ashoka ("Deprived of sorrow"). He established diplomatic and trade relations with many countries of the West and East. Under him, the state became one of the largest in the East. In his youth, he was not known for his gentle nature and even earned the nickname Chanda-Ashoka ("Cruel Ashoka"). In the eighth year of his reign, he defeated the state of Kalinga (the territory of the modern Indian state of Orissa), received additional political and commercial advantages. It seemed that the great king was destined to continue to wage wars and strengthen his power.

However, the rock edict of Ashoka, left for posterity, read: “. .. And no matter how many people at the time when the Kalingans were subjugated, were killed or died, or taken away from there, even a hundredth of this number, even a thousandth of it weighs on the thought of the One pleasing to the gods ”(as Ashoka called himself). He repented of what he had done.

Ashoka, once merciless, in another edict instructed: "And if someone harms, the God-beneficial believes that it is necessary to spare, as much as possible to forgive." The unexpected metamorphosis of Ashoka is explained by the fact that the king became an adherent of Buddhism, a religion that arose in India in the 6th century. BC, and began to follow its rules.

India is also home to Hinduism- one of the oldest religions on earth, which originated in 4 thousand BC.

A distinctive feature of Hinduism is polytheism. The ancient Indians believed that the gods, like people, love Tasty food, beautiful clothes, they also make friends and quarrel. The gods of the most ancient origin are considered Surya(Sun God), Dyaus Pitar(sky god) Ushas(goddess of the dawn) Parjanya(storm god) Saraswati(goddess of the river of the same name), Agni(God of fire). Especially revered Indra- Lord of the rain, victorious Vritra- the demon of drought.

Later, the main gods of the Indians became Brahma(beginning of all beginnings in the world), Shiva(destroyer) and Vishnu(guard).

The ancient Indians imagined Vishnu as a beautiful young man reclining on the mythical snake Shesha, which swims in the waters of the cosmic ocean. Vishnu has four arms, in which he holds a conch, a wheel, a club and a lotus flower. Vishnu has the gift of transforming himself into animals and humans.

Once, turning into a dwarf, Vishnu came to the demon king Bali and asked him to give him as much land as he could cover in three steps. Laughing, Bali willingly gave permission, but soon regretted it: the dwarf grew to a gigantic size and covered the sky with the first step, and the earth with the second. Seeing the horror of Bali, the magnanimous Vishnu did not take the third step.

High in the Himalayas on Mount Kailash, the god Shiva lives. His appearance is formidable Shiva is entwined with cobras, dressed in a tiger skin, wears a necklace of skulls. He is many-sided and many-armed, on his forehead is an all-withering third eye. As the legend says, saving people, Shiva drank poison, and his neck turned blue. Therefore, it is often called "Blue-throated". Shiva has a trident in his hand, and he always performs accompanied by the bull Nandin. Shiva and his wife Parvati, which means "Goryanka", have two sons. The first is the four-armed Ganesha, an elephant-headed man riding a rat. Until now, Ganesha is revered as the god of wisdom and good luck. His brother, the war god Skanda, has six heads. He rides on a huge peacock, holding a bow in one hand and arrows in the other.

The ancient Indians deified animals. The sacred cow Surabhi, which in translation means “Good-smelling”, was especially revered. According to legend, this cow resides in the paradise of the god Indra. The Indians also worshiped snakes - nagas. There is a state in modern India called Nagaland- "Land of Serpents".

In ancient India, it was customary to visit holy places. It was considered a special virtue to visit Hardwar - the place where the Ganges River flows into the plain, at least once in a lifetime, no matter how far a person lives, to take a bath in its sacred waters.

The Mahabharata contains so many fantastic stories, replete with strange details, that sometimes it seems - what if at least a fraction of the truth is written here?

Mahabharata and Ramayana

The priceless heritage of the great Indian culture is " Mahabharata"- a huge collection of legends, fairy tales, traditions, religious and philosophical texts.

The author of this grandiose work is unknown. There are many stories in the Mahabharata, the main one of which tells about the struggle of two royal families - the Pandavas and the Kauravas. In a long dispute, the Pandava brothers won, but not without divine help: the chariot of one of them, the brave and powerful Arjuna, was ruled by his mentor the great Krishna. The conversation between Krishna and Arjuna before the battle is depicted in the Bahagavat Gita (Divine Song), which is considered the most sacred part of the Mahabharata. Some parts of the Bhagavad Gita sound quite modern:

He who defeated himself is his own ally,
Who does not own
he, being hostile, is hostile to himself.

Epic poem " Ramayana"as opposed to the Mahabharata" - a single and harmonious work attributed to the poet Valmiki. The Ramayana tells about the eldest son of King Dasaratha, Rama, who, due to the deceit of one of the royal wives, is forced to go into exile with his brother Lakshman and his faithful wife Sita. They lived in the forest, eating roots and fruits. The king of demons, the evil Ravana, kidnapped Sita and carried him away. In a terrible rage, Rama, united with the leader of the monkeys Hanuman, kills the kidnapper and frees the beautiful Sita. Returning to the capital, Rama becomes king.

"Ramayana" and "Mahabharta" can be called an encyclopedia of the life of Ancient India: there is so much information about the country, the customs of people, public administration and culture.

The ancient Indians were knowledgeable not only in literature, but also in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. It was they who gave the world chess. The science of medicine was called Ayurveda- "the science of long life." The ancient Indian physician was at the same time a botanist, a pharmacologist, a biologist, and a psychologist. Skilled surgeons, they not only removed arrows from wounds almost painlessly for the patient, but even restored the correct shape of noses and ears crippled in battle, i.e. did plastic surgery. Well, in the treatment of snake bites, Indian doctors knew no equal!

The most interesting monuments of architecture have come down to us from ancient times. Buddhist shrines stupa outwardly very reminiscent of a bell.

When looking at them, thoughts about their cosmic origin unconsciously arise - they are so unusual. Their basis is an artificial mound, lined with bricks or covered with bleached plaster. The top of the building is crowned with a square terrace "harmika" ("palace of the gods"). A spire rushes upward from its center, on which umbrellas (three or seven), called "amalaka", are strung. Seven umbrellas symbolize seven steps from earth to heaven, and three - the number of heavenly spheres. Inside there is a small chamber (sometimes more than one) with the remains of the Buddha or Buddhist saints. All prayers and rituals are performed only outside.

The most famous is the sanctuary-stupa in Sanchi, which was built from the 3rd to the 1st century BC. BC. On its famous four gates, called "torana", the whole of India is represented: nature, architecture, traditions and legends associated with the life of gods and people, fantastic creatures, wildlife, trees and flowers, the biography of the Buddha. You can look at the gate for hours - how to read a fascinating book.

Ancient Indian civilization had a huge impact on many countries of the East. It is impossible to understand or study the history and culture of the peoples of South and Southeast Asia without knowing the history of Ancient India. She teaches a lot today. Do not forget the wisdom of the Vedas:

Let there be no hate
From brother to brother, and from sister to sister!
Turning to each other
following one vow,
Speak a good word!

History of ancient India

The civilization of ancient India until the beginning of the twentieth century was relatively little studied by archaeologists and historians, it was believed that the main centers of civilization of the ancient world lay in the Middle East, between the Tigris and Euphrates, and in ancient egypt. Everything changed thanks to the finds of the English archaeologist James Breasted, who was the first to discover in India traces of the ancient Harappan civilization, or Proto-Indian, as it is also called. And it turned out that the ancient Indian civilization is as ancient as the ancient Egyptian, that the culture of ancient India was no less developed than in ancient Sumer or . About ancient India, its history, culture, religion, art, our today's article.

History of ancient India

As we have already said, the most ancient Indian civilization, called the Harappan or proto-Indian civilization, was discovered by archaeologists at the beginning of the last twentieth century. Before the astonished eyes of scientists, a vibrant culture appeared, with developed cities, houses equipped with running water (this is at a time when people in Europe still lived in caves in places), developed crafts, trade and art. The ancient Indian city of Harappa was the first to be excavated, which gave the name to this civilization, then Mohenjo-Daro and many other ancient settlements of that time.

The territory of ancient India of that ancient period is located along the valley of the Indus River and its tributaries, and, as if with a necklace, covered the eastern coast of the Arabian Sea in the territory of modern India and Pakistan.

The origin of ancient India is still the subject of debate among historians and archaeologists. There is no agreement between them about whether the ancient proto-Indian civilization had local roots, or whether it was brought from neighboring Mesopotamia, with which, by the way, intensive trade was conducted.

One way or another, but most scientists believe that the proto-Indian civilization was formed from local early agricultural cultures that existed in the fertile Indus River valley. And archaeological finds support this point of view, since archaeologists have discovered many ancient agricultural settlements in the Indus Valley, which date back to the 6th-4th millennia BC. e.

The fertile Indus Valley, favorable climate, large deposits of silicon, providing raw materials for the manufacture of materials, all this contributed to the fact that these lands soon became one of the first cradles ancient civilization humanity.

Unfortunately, we cannot say much about the earliest page of ancient Indian history, since no written sources have come down to us from this period, the only way we can judge the life of the ancient Indians is archaeological finds. For this reason, we can say a lot about the culture of ancient India, about how their life and economy were, but we know practically nothing, for example, which kings ruled ancient India, what laws were there, whether they fought wars, and so on.

Decline of Indian Civilization

The reasons for the decline and decline of the ancient proto-Indian civilization also remain a historical mystery. But what we can tell from archaeological sources is that the crisis did not happen quickly, but gradually. The ancient cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro gradually emptied, buildings were abandoned, handicraft production was reduced, and trade fell into decay. Metal was used less and less.

There are several hypotheses regarding the reasons for this decline, one of them says that all this was caused by changes in ecology, a change in the course of the Indus River due to a strong earthquake that caused floods, a change in the direction of the monsoons, previously unknown diseases and epidemics, severe drought.

And the last straw that caused the fall of the Harappan civilization was the invasion of nomadic tribes - the Aryans, who came to India from the Central Asian steppes. Due to internal troubles, the Harappan cities could not resist the newcomers, and were soon conquered by them. Gradually, the Aryans mixed with the local population, and their mixture formed the modern Indian people.

Culture of ancient India

The Harappan culture of ancient India was very advanced, as for that time, which is what it says, at least the presence of highly developed cities that had straight streets. The houses were built of mud bricks and were even equipped with running water. Among the houses of the ancient Indian city there were necessarily public granaries, in the city itself there were quarters of various artisans. In particular, the ancient Indians were skilled potters, their artistically painted pottery was in demand far beyond the borders of India itself.

In the surrounding villages, barley and wheat were grown, sheep and goats were bred. A little later they began to plant date palms, sow rye, grow rice and cotton.

Art of ancient India

The ancient Indians were very creative people, but greatest success they achieved in architecture and sculpture. True, unfortunately, much more late works of Indian art have survived to our times than from the most ancient period of India, the Harappan civilization.

As for the comparatively later Indian art, it is very strongly influenced by the religion of ancient India, both Buddhism and Hinduism. Images of Buddha and many Indian deities have been preserved to this day on many ancient Indian temples and wall paintings.

Very strong in Indian art and erotic motif, the most a prime example which is the Indian temple of Khajuraho, where the Kama Sutra in stones is depicted in the most direct sense.

This is yet the most innocent image from the Khajuraho temple.

In general, the Hindus had a peculiar attitude towards sex, for them it was not something shameful, but, on the contrary, almost a spiritual practice, hence the proximity of eroticism and religion in Indian culture.

Religion of ancient India

India became the homeland for one of the three world religions - Buddhism, although, paradoxically, Buddhism itself did not accept, remaining true to its original religion - Hinduism. Buddhism, having originated in India, spread to all surrounding countries.

Hinduism, the traditional religion of India, has deep roots, as it comes to us from the ancient times of Indian history, in fact, it is a mixture of the beliefs of the ancient Indians of the Harappan civilization and the Aryan aliens. Mixing with the local population, the Aryans thoroughly mixed the religion of ancient India.

Hinduism is based on belief in many different gods, and there are so many gods in Hinduism that even the Hindus themselves cannot name their exact number. So every Indian village can have its own local patron god. And the gods of ancient India are divided into two large groups: suras and asuras, which in some Indian myths oppose each other, in some myths asuras are not gods at all, but more demons opposing divine suras. In this divine confrontation between the Hindu gods, one can see echoes of the real confrontation between the two cultures, the Aryan and the Harappan (proto-Indian).

And, nevertheless, in the divine diversity of the gods of Hinduism, several more main gods can be distinguished, which are revered by all Hindus, these are:

Brahma is the creator god, according to Hinduism, it is Brahma who is the creator of all things.
Shiva is the destroyer god. If Brahma is such a divine pencil, then Shiva is an eraser responsible for destruction, including the destruction of everything bad.
Vishnu, the supreme god-observer, the very word "Vishnu" is translated from Sanskrit as "comprehensive." It is the guardian of the universe and all things. He also watches over his "divine colleagues" Brahma and Shiva, so that one of them does not overdo it in his creation, and the second - in his destruction.

In addition to Hinduism and Buddhism, India is home to a huge number of different philosophical and religious teachings. Therefore, India is sometimes called the "land of a thousand religions."
It was from ancient India that chess, yoga, tea came to us (according to legend, an Indian monk meditated under a tea tree, a bowl of water lay next to him, and a leaf accidentally fell from the tree into the bowl, after tasting the bowl of water and tea leaf, the monk came to amazement at a delicious drink, and so tea was born).
Among the sciences in ancient India, mathematics received special development, and the ancient Indian mathematicians were the first to invent the decimal number system, the number 0, the rules for extracting square and cube roots, and also calculated the number "Pi" with great accuracy.
No less skillful were the ancient Indian astronomers, who were able to determine the phases of the moon without a telescope.
India is one of the origins of writing, Indian Sanskrit, which was written by Indian scholars and priests - Brahmins, became especially popular. However, the development of writing in ancient India began already in the post-Harappan period, with the arrival of the Aryans.

ancient india video

And in conclusion, an interesting documentary about ancient India from the Discovery channel.