Christmas traditions of European countries. The peoples of Europe: culture and traditions Traditions of the peoples living in Europe

Talking about modern norms of sex is not so interesting - the world is engulfed in globalization, the boundaries between nations are blurred thanks to the Internet and the work of local translators.

Fewer and fewer young people learn about sex from their parents, preferring to trust what they see in porn and read on online forums.

But if we go back to a time when there was no Internet or television, and knowledge about sex and everything connected with it was passed from mouth to mouth, we can discover a whole world of strange rituals, shocking myths and rituals incomprehensible to modern man. .

Hello Europe!

Let's start with our territory - Eastern Europe.

Different sources attribute different countries to this geographical area, but the most common designation speaks of the Czech Republic, Ukraine, Slovakia, Romania, Russia, Poland, Moldova, Hungary, Bulgaria, Belarus.

Serbia, Albania, Slovenia and Montenegro are also very often added to this list.

But let's put an end to this geographical confusion and recall that the settlements of the Slavs were considered the most numerous in Eastern Europe.

Initially, the Slavs were scattered pagan tribes, which were later united into Kievan Rus. Only after the adoption of Christianity, she was able to take a worthy place in the world political arena.

Sexual traditions of the Slavs

The new religion dictated its own rules to the inhabitants of Kievan Rus: from holidays to the abolition of the old sexual traditions.

Thus, Christian missionaries were struck by the dissolute life of the people of Kievan Rus. Records have come down to us from the 6th century by the Byzantine historian Mauritius the Strategist, who was outraged by the traditions of the Kupalo holiday, which is now known as Ivan Kupala.

Many unmarried girls and boys on this day gave themselves up to free sexual, and even group (!) Joys on river banks and lakes. Similar orgies took place during other pre-Christian holidays.

In those days, no one thought about keeping virginity before marriage, and the word “fornication” familiar to us had a completely different meaning, which was preserved in Russian “wander” and Ukrainian “blukati”.

Prodigal Slavic girls

"Fornication" did not have any negative connotations, it meant a search, namely the selection of a suitable partner to create a family.

And in the best traditions of pre-Christian Rus', the search was carried out in a rather frank, "lascivious" manner. Naturally, for dogma-observant Mauritius, all this seemed unacceptable.

Times were changing, and already in 953 Princess Olga took the first steps in the fight against "sexual barbarism", she introduced compensation for the lack of virginity of a young bride.

If it turned out that a man married an “unclean” woman, he had to pay a kind of tax to the state for her. True, history is silent about methods for checking the virginity of brides.

Fourteen years later, Prince Svyatoslav of Kiev, following his mother, introduced a new decree forbidding girls to lose their virginity with the Magi.

Now it seems wild, but before the wedding night, many brides went to the wise men in order to feel more confident and secure during sex with their husband.

It is worth noting that similar traditions were common throughout the rest of the world, this was especially reflected in the history of Greece and Ancient Rome.

The Slavic people hardly accepted all the innovations, but by the 14th-15th centuries they considered the classic “fornication” to be something immoral and outdated. Of course, there were no more orgies and group sex on Ivan Kupala.

Christianity left behind only the most acceptable remnants of paganism. For example, the cheerful traditions of Maslenitsa and jumping over the fire on Ivan Kupala have survived to this day.

Balkan erotic epic

This is the name of the sensational work of the Yugoslav master of performance Marina Abramović. In it, the author talks about the traditions familiar to Serbia and the Balkans, which now look like the ravings of a madman.

We will not post the video material here, but we will list all the most interesting and shocking traditions of the peoples of the Balkans.

“With the help of eroticism, man tries to make himself equal to the gods. In Balkan folklore, men and women try to preserve indestructible energy through the use of eroticism. They believed that erotic energy was something inhuman that could only come to a person from higher powers».

Marina Abramovich

1. In the case when a horse or a bull looked weak and could not cope with the work provided for them, the man put his hand into his pants, rubbed his crotch and touched the animal. It was believed that this would help cure fatigue.

2. Balkan women had their own recipe for a fidelity potion. To prepare it, it was necessary to take a small fish, which had previously spent a day in the female vagina, grind it into powder and mix it with coffee. If a man drinks this “drink”, he will never leave his beloved.

3. If a woman had problems during childbirth, the husband took out his penis and crossed his wife's breasts with it. It was believed that this would greatly facilitate the process of having a baby.

4. To increase the fertility of the land, and with it the improvement of the harvest, a man dug a hole in the ground and masturbated with it. In addition to the Balkans, this tradition is also found in many peoples of the world, including African ones.

5. To distract the enemy during the battle, the Balkan girls undressed and behaved as frankly as possible in relation to the enemy soldiers.

6. Now, to protect against the evil eye, we use a red thread or cover the child's face in the photo. In ancient times, the Balkans acted "a little" differently.

When the son left his home and went into adulthood, the mother ran her hand over her crotch and stroked her son's face, believing that this would protect him from the evil eye.

7. The tradition of treating diseases with the help of bees was preserved in the Balkans until the 19th century. But the locals did not just plant a bee on a sore spot. They sat down with their bare ass on a whole piece of evidence, often not limited to just one or two.

8. To protect himself from impotence, before the wedding, the man went to the bridge, made three holes in it and copulated with each, saying "As I insert this bridge into the hole, I will insert it to my wife in the same way." Almost all men firmly believed in the effectiveness of this method.

We are all equal in our past

Having read about the Balkan "passions", you most likely do not believe that such traditions could not only be observed by someone, but even exist.

Well, it was not in vain that we posted material about our Balkan brothers immediately after the Slavs, because now we will again return to the past of our people.

The "Balkan erotic epic" made a lot of noise and conveyed to mass culture a lot of incredible stories about the old traditions of the peoples of Europe.

But no one did anything like that to popularize the facts about the shameful past of the Slavs, even though in those days they were not considered shameful at all.

1. We already wrote about orgies on the Kupalo holiday, but it should be understood that almost all Slavic holidays ended with rivers of mash and sex with the first person you met. What the “bad youth” are doing now in the clubs used to be considered a common holiday pastime.

2. Virginity was not only not valued, sometimes it was the reason for divorce after the wedding night. And there is nothing strange in this, because in a society where sex in the market with a merchant or with a concubine in front of the squad was the norm, the girl's virginity aroused suspicion and slight misunderstanding. Just like among modern youth: “What? Are you 20 and still a virgin?

3. It's hard to believe, but incest was quite common among the Slavs. Parents did not see anything wrong with the games of brother and sister, who sometimes went too far. And among farmers, even before the 19th century, there was a belief that sex between two native people in the middle of the field would make the soil fertile.

4. It is curious that despite all the liberties of the Slavs, marriage for them was a sacred phenomenon. If a man was fond of someone's wife, then he actually risked his life - an angry people could easily bury the culprit alive.

But if one man decided to steal another's wife, the attempt could be fully justified. Some Slavic men were so fed up with their wives that they were only happy about such a theft. Maybe that's where the saying "a woman with a cart - it's easier for a mare" came from.

Inspiring outcome

Yes, it is not easy to admit that our great-great-great-great-great-great-great-great-great-great-grandmothers and a few more times were committed to debauchery, incest and group sex with strangers.

The adoption of Christianity was a difficult test for our people - many could not accept the new rules and sacrificed their lives for the sake of pagan traditions.

But, despite the difficult times, we were able to adopt the values of Orthodoxy and became who we are to this day.

Now religion competes with science in its right to shape the worldview of people, but there is no point in worrying about the consequences of such a confrontation and the expected moral decline.

The Church managed to instill in us the best values, which are now only reinforced by such sciences as biology and psychology.

The future is not for godless perverts with a sense of permissiveness. The future belongs to reasonable and highly moral people who understand the meaning and consequences of their actions.

I would like to believe that this is exactly what the next step in human evolution looks like.

As a result of the research, it was found that at present 87 peoples live on the territory of modern Europe, of which 33 are the main nation for their states, 54 are an ethnic minority in the countries where they live, their number is 106 million people.

In total, about 827 million people live in Europe, this figure is steadily growing every year due to emigrants from the countries of the Middle East and a large number of people coming here to work and study from all over the world. The most numerous European nations are the Russian nation (130 million), German (82 million), French (65 million), British (58 million), Italian (59 million), Spanish (46 million), Polish (47 million), Ukrainian (45 million). Also, the inhabitants of Europe are such Jewish groups as Karaites, Ashkenazi, Rominiotes, Mizrahim, Sephardim, their total number is about 2 million people, gypsies - 5 million people, Yenishi ("white gypsies") - 2.5 thousand people.

Despite the fact that the countries of Europe have a motley ethnic composition, it can be said that they, in principle, went through a single path of historical development and their traditions and customs were formed in a single cultural space. Most of the countries were created on the ruins of the once great Roman Empire, which stretched from the possessions of the Germanic tribes in the west, to the borders in the east, where the Gauls lived, from the coast of Britain in the north and the southern borders in North Africa.

Culture and traditions of the peoples of Northern Europe

According to the UN, the countries of Northern Europe include such states as Great Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Denmark, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Norway, Finland, Sweden. The most numerous peoples living in the territory of these countries and making up more than 90% of the population are the British, Irish, Danes, Swedes, Norwegians and Finns. For the most part, the peoples of Northern Europe are representatives of the northern group of the Caucasian race. These are people with fair skin and hair, their eyes are most often gray or blue. Religion - Protestantism. The inhabitants of the northern European region belong to two language groups: Indo-European and Uralic (Finno-Ugric and Germanic group)

(English primary school students)

The British live in a country called Great Britain or as it is also called Foggy Albion, their culture and traditions have a long history. They are considered to be a little prim, reserved and cold-blooded, in fact they are very friendly and complaisant, they just value their personal space very much and kisses and hugs are unacceptable for them when they meet, like the French, for example. They have great respect for sports (football, golf, cricket, tennis), they venerate five o clock (five or six o’clock in the evening is the time to drink traditional English tea, preferably with milk), they prefer oatmeal for breakfast and the saying “my house is mine”. fortress” is about such “desperate” homebodies, which they are. The British are very conservative and do not welcome change very much, so they treat the reigning Queen Elizabeth II and other members of the royal family with great respect.

(Irishman with his toy)

The Irish are known to the general public for their red hair and beard, the emerald green of the national color, the celebration of St. Patrick's Day, the belief in the mythical Leprechaun gnome who grants wishes, the fiery temper and the bewitching beauty of Irish folk dances performed to jig, reel and hornpipe.

(Prince Federik and Princess Mary, Denmark)

The Danes are distinguished by special hospitality and fidelity to ancient customs and traditions. The main feature of their mentality is the ability to distance themselves from external problems and worries and completely immerse themselves in home comfort and peace. From other northern peoples with a calm and melancholy disposition, they are distinguished by a great temperament. They, like no one else, value the freedom and rights of the individual. One of the most popular holidays is St. Hans' Day (we have Ivan Kupala), the popular Viking Festival is held annually on the island of Zealand.

(Birthday Buffet)

By nature, the Swedes are mostly reserved, silent people, very law-abiding, modest, thrifty and reserved people. They also love nature very much, they are distinguished by hospitality and tolerance. Most of their customs are associated with the change of seasons, in winter they meet St. Lucy, in summer they celebrate Midsommar (pagan festival of the solstice) in the bosom of nature.

(Indigenous Saami representative in Norway)

The ancestors of the Norwegians were brave and proud Vikings, whose hard life was completely devoted to the struggle for survival in the harsh conditions of the northern climate and surrounded by other wild tribes. That is why the culture of Norwegians is imbued with the spirit of a healthy lifestyle, they welcome sports in nature, appreciate diligence, honesty, simplicity in everyday life and decency in human relations. Their favorite holidays are Christmas, Saint Canute's Day, Midsummer's Day.

(Finns and their pride - deer)

The Finns are very conservative and respect their traditions and customs very much, they are considered very restrained, completely devoid of emotions and very slow, and for them silence and thoroughness are a sign of aristocracy and good taste. They are very polite, correct and appreciate punctuality, they love nature and dogs, fishing, skiing and steaming in Finnish saunas, where they restore physical and moral strength.

Culture and traditions of the peoples of Western Europe

In the countries of Western Europe, the most numerous nationalities living here are Germans, French, Italians and Spaniards.

(in a french cafe)

The French are distinguished by restraint and politeness, they are very well-mannered and the rules of etiquette are not an empty phrase for them. Being late for them is the norm of life, the French are great gourmets and connoisseurs of good wines, which even children drink there.

(Germans at the festival)

The Germans are distinguished by their special punctuality, accuracy and pedantry, they rarely violently express emotions and feelings in public, but deep down they are very sentimental and romantic. Most Germans are zealous Catholics and celebrate the feast of the First Communion, which is of great importance to them. Germany is famous for its beer festivals, such as the Munich Oktouberfest, where tourists drink millions of gallons of the famous beer and eat thousands of fried sausages every year.

Italians and restraint are two incompatible concepts, they are emotional, cheerful and open, they love stormy love passions, ardent courtship, serenades under the windows and magnificent wedding celebrations (in Italian matrimonio). The Italians profess Catholicism, almost every village and village has its own patron saint, the presence of a crucifix is mandatory in the houses.

(Spain's lively street buffet)

Native Spaniards constantly speak loudly and quickly, gesticulate and show violent emotions. They have a hot temperament, there are “many” of them everywhere, they are noisy, friendly and open to communication. Their culture is permeated with feelings and emotions, dances and music are passionate and sensual. The Spaniards love to take a walk, relax during the summer two-hour sisest, cheer for the bullfighters at bullfights, leave tomatoes at the annual Battle of the Tomatoes on the Tomatina holiday. The Spaniards are very religious and their religious holidays are very magnificent and pompous.

Culture and traditions of the peoples of Eastern Europe

The ancestors of the Eastern Slavs live on the territory of Eastern Europe, the most numerous ethnic groups are Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.

The Russian people are distinguished by breadth and depth of soul, generosity, hospitality and respect for their native culture, which has centuries-old roots. Its holidays, customs and traditions are closely connected with both Orthodoxy and paganism. Its main holidays are Christmas, Epiphany, Shrovetide, Easter, Trinity, Ivan Kupala, Intercession, etc.

(Ukrainian lad with a girl)

Ukrainians value family values, honor and respect the customs and traditions of their ancestors, which are very colorful and bright, believe in the value and power of amulets (specially made items that protect against evil spirits) and use them in various areas of their lives. This is a hardworking people with a distinctive culture, Orthodoxy and paganism are mixed in their customs, which makes them very interesting and colorful.

Belarusians are a hospitable and open nation, loving their unique nature and respecting their traditions, it is important for them to treat people politely and respect their neighbors. In the traditions and customs of the Belarusians, as well as among all the descendants of the Eastern Slavs, there is a mixture of Orthodoxy and Christianity, the most famous of them are Kalyady, Grandfathers, Dozhinki, Gukanne are clear.

Culture and traditions of the peoples of Central Europe

The peoples living in Central Europe include Poles, Czechs, Hungarians, Slovaks, Moldavians, Romanians, Serbs, Croats, etc.

(Poles on a national holiday)

The Poles are very religious and conservative, but at the same time they are open to communication and hospitable. They are distinguished by a cheerful disposition, friendliness and have their own point of view on any issue. All age categories of Poles visit the church every day and venerate the Virgin Mary above all else. Religious holidays are celebrated with special scope and triumph.

(The Five Petal Rose Festival in the Czech Republic)

Czechs are hospitable and friendly, they are always friendly, smiling and polite, they honor their traditions and customs, keep and love folklore, love national dances and music. The national Czech drink is beer, many traditions and rituals are dedicated to it.

(Hungarian dances)

The character of the Hungarians is distinguished by a significant degree of practicality and love of life, combined with deep spirituality and romantic impulses. They are very fond of dancing and music, arrange magnificent folk festivals and fairs with rich souvenirs, carefully preserve their traditions, customs and holidays (Christmas, Easter, St. Stephen's Day and the Day of the Hungarian Revolution).

Many of the tourists, deciding to go on vacation to a new European country, are completely unaware that the customs and traditions in Europe are fundamentally different from Russian standards. Each country, for example, has its own rules of etiquette and violation of them can at least make a tourist blush for his behavior, so it’s better to get acquainted with the traditions of the peoples of Europe before you go on a trip.

In this article, I would like to dwell on etiquette in Europe, as well as on the wedding and culinary traditions of the Old World.

Traditions and customs of the peoples of Europe. Etiquette

The concept of etiquette came into widespread use in the 17th century. During the reign of the French king Louis XIV, before one of their receptions, all guests were given cards in which some rules of conduct were written at this very reception. It was etiquette, as a tradition of Western Europe, that quickly spread to other countries of the continent, and then to the whole world.

In Western European countries, etiquette developed under the great influence of traditional customs. Different layers of society, prejudices and superstitions, religious rites determined the development of etiquette in those days.

At present, many believe that modern etiquette has inherited only the best of the customs and traditions of Europe, being passed down from generation to generation. And if some norms of behavior have remained unchanged until today, then, probably, there is no need to argue with folk wisdom.

However, do not forget that some requirements regarding etiquette are rather conditional and directly depend on time, place and circumstances.

For example, we can recall that just a few centuries ago a man could carry a sword, dagger or saber on his left side, and if a woman walked next to him, then naturally, so as not to touch the weapon, she walked to his right. Now there are no such interferences (except in families where the man is a military man), but the tradition has been preserved.

Wedding traditions in Europe

In modern Europe, over a long period of its development, the traditions and customs of countries have intermingled with each other. This largely applies to the preparation and conduct of wedding celebrations.

Some of the wedding traditions of Europe are well known to the people of Russia, but others can be a real revelation for us.

For example, in Hungary, the bride must take off her shoes and put them in the middle of the room, and whoever wants to invite her to dance must throw coins into the shoes. The same custom is common at weddings in Portugal.

At weddings in Romania, newlyweds are showered with millet, nuts or rose petals.

A bride in Slovakia should present her chosen one with a ring and a silk shirt embroidered with gold threads. And the groom in return should give her a silver ring, a fur hat, a rosary and a chastity belt.

In Norway, the bride and groom must plant two Christmas trees, and in Switzerland - a pine tree.

At German weddings, before the ceremony, the bride's friends and relatives break dishes near her house, and the French newlyweds drink wine from a goblet as a sign of happiness and love.

A festive banquet in Holland is usually held before the wedding ceremony itself.

English brides pin a horseshoe or mace of happiness on their wedding dress.

The heads of brides in Finland must be decorated with a crown.

Before the start of the wedding in Sweden, the bride puts two coins in her shoes that her parents gave her - her mother is gold, and her father is silver.

Each such wedding tradition in European countries is unique, and the best part is that even after many years they do not lose their relevance and live in the memory of modern Europeans.

Culinary traditions of the peoples of Europe

The culinary traditions of Europe are not the oldest in the world, but the innate enterprise and curiosity of its inhabitants have made the cuisine of the continent extremely complex and varied.

The culinary traditions of the peoples of Europe are amazing recipes of national dishes from different countries. This is rather a collective concept, because each country can be proud of its own culinary features and traditions.

In Central Europe, Polish and Hungarian dishes predominate. Crown recipes are the preparation of goulash, strudel, vegetable soup with dill, etc.

Dishes of Eastern Europe are extremely diverse. The customs of cooking were passed on to modern residents from the nomads who settled these lands many centuries ago.

In Western Europe, French cuisine is distinguished, the chefs of which know a lot about vegetables and good wine. The neighbors of the French - the Germans cannot imagine their life without potatoes, meat and beer.

The cuisine of Northern Europe is extremely diverse. From beer with chips or fish to creme brulee and chocolate fudge.

Particularly noteworthy are the recipes for duck in orange sauce and chicken huntsman.

A distinctive feature of South European cuisine is the addition of wine to many dishes, which is also served without fail on the table before a meal.

Modern European culture

In conclusion, the article should be noted that, starting from the second half of the 20th century, the concept of mass culture arose in Europe - a characteristic phenomenon in the 20th century, which was caused by mass consumption and production.

Mass culture has rapidly embraced various spheres of life, and most fully manifested itself in the youth subculture (for example, rock music, etc.).

There was a noticeable strengthening of it thanks to the media, raising the level of literacy of the population and the development of information technology.

Many domestic travelers and tourists, going on vacation to European countries, do not even realize how much the customs and traditions of Europeans differ from those adopted in Russia. In each country, for a long time, their own rules of conduct, norms of etiquette, and ways of expressing feelings, affections or emotions were formed. The same gesture or expression in different countries can be interpreted in the opposite way, which, at times, makes both the tourist and the resident of the country in which the traveler has arrived blush. To prevent this from happening, any person traveling abroad must certainly get acquainted with the main traditions and customs adopted in a particular country. This article is devoted to the rules and norms of behavior in various fields of human activity, which can be found in the countries of the Old World.

European etiquette and its features

The word "etiquette" came into wide use as early as the 17th century, at a time when King Louis 14 ruled in France. Once, at a large secular reception, all guests received special cards that indicated exactly how one should specific admission. Since that time, the concept of "etiquette" began to spread rapidly outside the French state, first in Europe, and then in all countries of the world. In Western Europe, etiquette was closely associated with the customs and traditions inherent in each country, the generally accepted behavior was influenced by religious rites, superstitions, and everyday habits of people. According to many modern historians, the etiquette that exists at the moment has absorbed all the best, while being based precisely on those traditions that have been passed down from generation to generation in European states. Some norms have come down to us in their original form, others, under the influence of time, have changed significantly. In any case, it must be remembered that almost all the requirements of etiquette are rather conditional, and depend on many factors, such as place, time, and circumstances under which they may be applicable.

Why do you think it is customary for a woman to walk holding a man under her right hand?

From the time when men began to wear piercing and cutting weapons: a sword, saber or dagger, it was customary to wear them on the left. Therefore, the companion could only walk side by side on the right side. Currently, there are no such obstacles (unless the man in the family is a military man), but the tradition of walking to the right of the man is still preserved.

The globalization of the modern world has made it possible to combine and mix many traditions and customs of Europeans. This is especially noticeable when holding such a celebration as a wedding. Many European wedding or wedding traditions are quite well known in Russia, and some will surprise you with their uniqueness.

The Hungarian bride always puts her shoes in the middle of the room, in which everyone who wants to dance with her must put a coin. The same custom exists in Portugal.

In Romania, it is customary to sprinkle the young with rose petals, millet and nuts before entering the house.

Wedding Traditions in Slovakia

For a long and prosperous life in Slovakia, the bride gives her future husband a ring and an elegant silk shirt embroidered with gold. In return, the groom gives his future wife a chastity belt, a fur hat, a rosary and a silver ring.

Norwegian newlyweds plant two spruces, and Swiss - one pine.

Before the wedding ceremony, in Germany, close relatives and friends of the young people break a lot of dishes. Newlyweds from France secure their union by drinking wine from the same goblet.

Wedding traditions in the Netherlands

In the Netherlands, it is customary to have a banquet before, not after, the wedding.

In England, brides put a pin or small horseshoe in their wedding dress for good luck.

Finnish brides marry with a crown on their heads.

In Sweden, the bride receives two coins from her parents: gold from her mother, silver from her father. The bride puts these coins in her wedding shoes.

Only at first glance it seems that European wedding traditions are observed less and less over time. In fact, even in major cities, brides and grooms try to hold a wedding event in accordance with generally accepted norms and traditions.

European weddings

Culinary traditions of the Old World

European traditions regarding the preparation and use of food are considered to be among the most ancient in the world. The cuisine of the peoples of Europe is very diverse, while being quite complex and refined. Each country of the Old World boasts its own national characteristics in cooking, its own traditions in its use, as well as a variety of products and spices.

Southern European cuisine is characterized by the addition of wine to many dishes. Eastern European cuisine is represented by nomadic dishes - simple and hearty. Central European cuisine is, as a rule, dishes from Hungary and Poland, and in Western Europe they love complex French cuisine, and solid German cuisine - with potatoes, meat, and beer.

The customs and traditions of the peoples of Europe are in many ways different from those to which we are accustomed. Features of European etiquette apply to all spheres of life - from weddings to culinary passions. Today, the observance of traditions has become not only the personification of the rich culture and history of the country, but also an important principle for preserving its statehood and the formation of mass culture. Since the middle of the last century, the mass culture of the Old World began to gain momentum, influencing all areas of activity - from production to the life of an ordinary European. Most of all, the youth was imbued with mass culture, which began to express it in clothes, music, lifestyle, and ways of spending leisure time. The speed of the spread of culture to the masses is due to the high speed of development of information technology, the emergence of a large number of media, as well as an increase in the level of education.

Festive European traditions

Traditional economic activities of the population of Western, Northern, Central and Southern Europe. Foreign Europe is a highly developed region, so the traditional forms of economy are almost not preserved there. In the past, the main occupations of Europeans were agriculture and animal husbandry. In other matters, the latter was inferior to agriculture everywhere, except for a few areas (Iceland, the Alps, the Faroe Islands).

In Europe, very early - back in the II-I millennium BC. e. - plow agriculture spread. Farmers used arable implements of two types: a ralo (which did not have a blade and a wheeled limber) and a plow (equipped with a blade and a wheeled limber). Ralo was common in the southern and northern regions, the plow - in the central regions. Oxen was used as working livestock in the south of Europe, horses were used in the north. Rough crops were harvested with sickles and scythes. Bread

they threshed, with flails, and in the south they sometimes drove oxen over the compressed ears. Grain was ground in water and windmills. Now these old farming tools and methods of processing crops are mostly a thing of the past, used latest ways agriculture.

The most important agricultural crops in the northern regions of Europe are barley, rye, oats, in the central regions - wheat, rye, sugar beets. In the south of Europe, in addition to wheat and rye, corn imported from America is grown, and rice is also cultivated in some areas. Widespread in Europe and such a culture of American origin as potatoes. Horticulture and horticulture have long been very developed in Europe. The cultivation of fruit and citrus trees and viticulture are common in the Mediterranean. Vineyards, the main part of the crops of which goes to the manufacture of wines, are also found to the north - along the valleys of the Loire and Rhine rivers. From industrial crops in the north of Europe, flax and hemp are grown, in the south - cotton and tobacco. Floriculture is developed in many European countries, especially in Holland, Denmark, Germany, England.

Animal husbandry plays a rather important role in the economy of most peoples of Europe. Mainly cattle are bred. The maintenance of livestock is stalled. Animal husbandry is focused both on the production of milk and dairy products, and on the production of meat and meat products. In many parts of Europe, sheep (mainly for wool) and pigs are also bred.

In coastal areas, fishing is very developed in combination with the extraction of other seafood: shrimp, oysters, mussels. It is especially important among Norwegians and Icelanders.

Since the Middle Ages, a very developed handicraft industry existed in Europe, on the basis of which a diverse industry was later formed. Later, the craft was strongly pressed by the industry, but some of its types, primarily those of artistic significance, are preserved to this day. These are circle weaving, embroidery, jewelry making, the production of ceramic and glass products, and some musical instruments.

The economy of the Saami living in the Arctic regions differs significantly from the occupations of other peoples of Europe. They have the most developed tundra reindeer husbandry and fishing.

Settlements and types of rural houses. Currently, in most European countries, the urban population is sharply dominated. In many countries, urban/whites make up over three-quarters of the total population, and in the UK and Northern Ireland even over 90%. Among European cities there are very ancient ones with more than a thousand years of history: Rome, for example, arose in the 7th century. BC e., Athens - even earlier - in the XVI century. BC e. The ancient cities founded in the period of the Roman Empire include, in particular, Paris, London, Cologne. There are many cities in Europe that grew up in the Middle Ages (for example, Bristol, Stockholm, Berlin, Madrid) and during the period of rapid industrial development (Birmingham and Manchester in England, the cities of the Ruhr basin in Germany and many others). In old cities, as a rule, their historical part is preserved, the most ancient historical monuments are concentrated, giving each city uniqueness and originality. The unique appearance of Athens is associated with the ancient 11arfenope, Rome - with the Colosseum, Paris - with the cathedral Notre Dame of Paris and the Louvre, / London - with Gaucher, Cologne - with the famous Cologne Cathedral.

Europe is characterized by a large concentration of the population in the largest cities, more precisely in urban agglomerations, which also include settlements adjacent to the city. The population of such cities is especially diverse, since it is there that the main flows of migrants are directed. In large cities, communication and mutual influence of representatives of different nationalities is especially intense, which, along with other factors, leads to the formation of a special urban subculture.

However, despite the early development of urban life in Europe, before the start of intensive industrialization, it was still dominated by the rural population. In some countries (for example, in Portugal, Albania), it is still numerous. Among the rural settlements there are both multi-yard and single-yard ones. One-yard settlements - farms - are most often found in the mountainous regions of France, in northern Spain, in northern Italy, in northwestern Germany, western England and Norway. Multi-yard settlements - villages - prevail in the flat part of Central Europe, France, Italy and Spain, as well as in the Balkans. Multi-yard rural settlements differ significantly in their development. In Central and Southern Europe, cumulus villages predominate, when the houses and the estates adjacent to them are in disorder, the streets are crooked and tangled. There are also circular villages in the east of Germany. Houses in such a village are built around the square and face it with their facades. In some places in the west of Europe there are street villages, although this type of settlement is more typical for Eastern European peoples. Street villages were usually built along the roads. In Europe, one can also find scattered, or scattered, villages, which are a cross between groups of one-door farms and villages with many households. They are common in Western Europe.

Rural dwellings found in Europe are also divided into several types, of which only the most common are considered here. So,

the so-called Mediterranean house is especially characteristic of the south of Europe. This is a two-story, less often - a three-story stone building, at the bottom of which there are utility rooms, at the top - living quarters. The roof of the Mediterranean house is gable, tiled. Spaniards, southern French, southern Italians live in such houses.

In the north of Italy, in the mountainous regions of Switzerland and Austria, in the south of Germany, the so-called alpine house is the most common. It is also two-storied, its lower part is made of stone, and the upper part is wooden, log-house, with a gallery. The roof of such a house is also gable, rests on longitudinal beams. Residential premises are located on both floors, utility rooms - only on the first. The Basque dwelling looks like an Alpine house, only unlike the Alpine house, the second floor of the Basque is framed.

In most of the territory of France and the Netherlands, in Belgium, Great Britain, Central Germany, the flat regions of Austria and Switzerland, houses of the Western Central European type are common. One of its variants is the High German (Franconian) house. This is a building of one or two floors - brick or with a frame of wooden crossed beams, the gaps between which are filled with a variety of materials (clay, rubble, brick, etc.). Residential and utility rooms with sin or four sides close the open courtyard. The roof rests on rafters.

The North French house is a stone or frame residential building stretched along the street, to which utility rooms adjoin. The house is not fenced. In contrast, the South Limburg house, common in Belgium (also one-story, stone or frame), is surrounded by a high wall. Utility rooms are sometimes freely scattered around the yard, sometimes located along its perimeter. The entrance to the house is made under the arch.

In the northern regions of Germany and the Netherlands, as well as in Denmark, houses of northern European

sky type. A particularly characteristic variety of this type is the Low German (or Saxon) house. This is an extensive one-story building - frame or just brick (without a frame). In the middle part there is a threshing floor (a room where compressed bread is stored and threshed) or a covered courtyard, on both sides of which there are living quarters, stables, barns (cattle pens). The massive roof of such a house does not rest on the walls, but on thick pillars standing inside the house along the walls.

The Pannonian house, common in Hungary, is a one-story adobe building with a thatched roof. Along the house is a gallery on poles.

In Scandinavia and Finland, one-story log dwellings are common. The North Scandinavian house consists of a heated living space, an unheated entrance hall and a closet. In a South Scandinavian house, a cold vestibule adjoins a heated living space on both sides.

The tradition of building rural houses in the past had a significant impact on urban architecture. At present, urban architecture is characterized by an increasing unification and smoothing of traditional specifics. A similar trend is also seen in rural areas.

Traditional food. Traditional food in different parts of Europe varies quite markedly. In the south of Europe, wheat bread is eaten; in the north, along with wheat, rye is widely distributed. In the north, mainly animal oil is used, in the south - vegetable oil. From drinks in Great Britain, Ireland, and also the Netherlands they prefer tea, in other countries - coffee, and in Central Europe it is usually drunk with milk or cream, and in Southern Europe - black. In southern countries they eat very little in the morning, in northern countries breakfast is more hearty. In the south, naturally, more fruit is consumed. In coastal areas, a significant place in the diet, for obvious reasons, is occupied by fish and other seafood.

At the same time, along with regional originality, characteristic features are inherent in the food of each people. Thus, the French, in comparison with other European nations, eat more bakery products. For the preparation of snacks, first and second courses, the French use a lot of vegetables, root crops and tubers: potatoes, different varieties of onions (especially leeks and shallots), cabbage and salads, green beans, spinach, tomatoes, eggplants. Asparagus and artichokes are very popular. Compared to other peoples of Western Europe, they use less milk and dairy products, except for cheese. There are more than one hundred varieties of French cheese, among which soft cheese with an internal green mold is very popular - Roquefort and soft cheese with external white mold - Camembert. The favorite traditional dishes of the French are steak with deep-fried potatoes, stew with white bechamel sauce. A variety of sauces are generally very widely used by the French in the preparation of meat second courses and salads. Of the first French courses, it is especially common onion soup with cheese. The delicacies of French cuisine are oysters, snails and fried hind legs of large ligushek. The French rank first in the world in the consumption of grape wines. Wine is served twice a day - for lunch and dinner.

The favorite food of Italians is pasta, all dishes of which are called paste. Pasta is prepared with tomato sauce, butter and cheese or meat. Pasta is often served with beans, peas, cauliflower. Cheese occupies a significant place in the diet of Italians. Its traditional varieties are Parmesan(hard dry cheese) Mozzarella(steam from buffalo milk), pecorino(salty dry cheese made from sheep's milk). Italians also eat risotto pilaf with ham, grated cheese, onion, shrimps and mushrooms, polenta- thick corn porridge, which is cut into pieces before serving. Of spices and seasonings, Italians prefer olives,

capers (buds of the plant of the same name), chicory and nutmeg.

The British eat quite a lot of meat (beef, veal, lamb, lean pork). The most popular meat dishes are roast beef And steak. The meat is usually served with tomato sauce, pickles (small pickled vegetables), potatoes and vegetables. The traditional food of the British are also various puddings: meat, cereals, vegetables (they are served as second courses), as well as sweet fruit (dessert). In the morning, the British like to eat liquid oatmeal (porridge) or wheat (corn) flakes with milk. Of the first courses, they prefer broths and mashed soups. On holidays in England they try to cook traditional dishes. A favorite among them is the Christmas flame-pudding fat, bread crumbs, flour, raisins, sugar, eggs and various spices. It is doused with rum, set on fire and served on the table flaming. Scottish traditional food is in many ways similar to English, but has its own characteristics. The Scots are very characteristic of black (blood) pudding and white pudding (made from a mixture of oatmeal, lard and onions). The Scots more than the British use cereals for cooking various dishes. A traditional Scottish dish is lamb or veal tripe with oatmeal, richly seasoned with onions and peppers.

The Germans are characterized by the widespread consumption of all kinds of sausages, sausages and sausages. A very common dish is sausages with stewed sauerkraut. Potato soup with sausages and pea soup with sausage are also popular. The Germans also cook a variety of pork and poultry dishes. Vegetables are usually eaten boiled (cauliflower and red cabbage, green beans and carrots are especially common). Boiled peas, beans, potatoes are popular. The Germans cook many dishes from eggs: stuffed eggs, baked eggs, scrambled eggs, scrambled eggs. The Germans also love various sandwiches. The traditional drink of the Germans is beer.

The basis of the cuisine of the Scandinavian peoples is fish and other seafood. Fish dishes are on the tables of Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders almost daily. The Danes love herring, mackerel, eel, flounder and salmon boiled or salted. Smoked and dried fish are less common. A popular Norwegian dish is herring with potatoes. They also eat fried cod, flounder, halibut. Their favorite food is clipfix- decapitated cod dried on the rocks. Sandwiches are very common among the Scandinavian peoples. In Denmark, the sandwich is even called the king of cuisine. There are up to seven hundred types of different sandwiches here: from a simple slice of bread and butter to the so-called multi-story sandwich, called "Hans Christian Andersen's favorite sandwich." Such a sandwich consists of several slices of bread, interspersed with several layers of bacon, tomatoes, liver pate, jelly and white radish. Eat it, removing one layer after another. Multi-story sandwiches are also prepared using various seafood. Milk occupies a prominent place in Scandinavian cuisine. Scandinavian peoples like to drink fresh milk, various cereals and soups are prepared from milk, they are washed down with potato dishes, and various sour-milk products are made from it.

Traditional clothing of the peoples of Western, Central, Northern and Southern Europe. National features in modern clothing of European peoples, quite a bit has been preserved. The so-called European urban costume, which was born in Great Britain, is ubiquitous there. For men, this costume consists of trousers, a long-sleeved shirt and a jacket, for women - a skirt, a blouse with sleeves and a jacket. Such a suit late XIX V. spread among the townspeople, and later among the villagers, almost everywhere displacing the national clothing complexes. National costumes are now worn only during folklore holidays, concerts of folk art groups, etc.

Nevertheless, individual elements of traditional clothing continue to exist, we accept not only in rural areas, but also in cities. So, in Edinburgh and other cities of Scotland, men often wear national plaid skirts. (kilt). By the way, the skirt as a typical element of men's clothing was also common among the Irish, Greeks and Albanians.

The most common element of the European menswear in the past there were pants a little below the knee. They were worn with short stockings or leggings. Men also wore a long-sleeved shirt and a vest or jacket over it. The French, Spaniards and other Romanesque peoples tied a colored scarf around their necks. A felt or felt hat served as a typical headdress. The traditional Basque headdress - a cloth beret - was later borrowed by other peoples of Europe. In particular, it became the most popular headdress of the French.

Women's traditional clothing different peoples was of great variety. Among most Romanesque peoples, women wore long, wide skirts with a frill or border. The Germans wore short wide pleated skirts. Sometimes several skirts of different lengths were worn at once. Wearing several skirts at once, trimmed with lace (moreover, the upper skirt was darker) was also customary in some other areas, for example, in Holland and Flanders (northwestern Belgium). Greek women also wore a sundress with a belt. In some places, especially in mountainous areas, women wore long trousers. Throughout Europe it was

It is customary to wear a bright apron. White jackets with long sleeves were also characteristic; a tight-fitting bodice with lacing or buttons was worn over the jacket. They wore scarves, caps and hats on their heads.

In many parts of Europe, along with leather shoes, wooden shoes were common.

The traditional Sami clothing is very different from the costumes of all other European nations. For men, it consisted of a knee-length shirt and narrow cloth pants, for women it consisted of a long white shirt and a dress worn over it (in warm weather - calico, in cold weather - cloth). In winter, both men and women wore clothes and shoes made of deer skins.

They try to make the wedding magnificent, but elegant, without vulgarity and unnecessary fuss. Many European wedding traditions are adopted by other countries to make the celebration just as elegant and stylish.

Many beautiful wedding traditions were borrowed from European countries. For people in England, Germany, France, Spain and other countries, marriage is a reverent and romantic event, which is intertwined with many customs and memorable moments.

The essence of the rites

Peoples with a rich history have accumulated a whole storehouse of different traditions, signs and superstitions, some of which relate specifically to the wedding. Whatever the culture of the country, marriage has a special role, and since ancient times there have been special procedures for its preparation and conduct.

Many of the wedding traditions in Europe have been forgotten, others have changed, and only a small part has survived to this day in its original state. With the advent of Christianity, the separate features of peoples began to be forgotten, and common patterns began to appear in the customs of different cultures. This does not mean that people have lost their individuality - they only interpreted the same faith.

Now even those wedding ceremonies in Europe that have been preserved since ancient times are rarely seen at holidays. Including conservative Europeans began to give preference to the celebration.

Old customs can be found only in those cases when the bride and groom want to pay tribute to their ancestors, and even then such rituals are only a formality and do not carry a sacred meaning.

Most often, the observance of wedding traditions can be found if the future newlyweds decide to organize their marriage in a particular style. For example, popular, French, and.

What and where exist

Among all European countries, the most rich in customs associated with marriage are England, Greece, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Ireland and Sweden. Most often, stylized weddings are arranged in accordance with these concepts.

In England, for example, the bride must wear four obligatory things to the wedding - something new (the dress itself, underwear), something old (family jewelry, shoes), something borrowed from a friend or relative (clutch, bracelet) and something blue (garter, hairpin). It is believed that in this case, the girl will attract good luck and the favor of higher powers. According to another English tradition, a little girl from among those invited to the wedding goes ahead of the bride and strews her path with rose petals.

In Greece, there is a wonderful custom to present gifts to guests, and they are purchased with the money of the groom's family. Another wedding tradition in Europe is the wedding, which takes place on Sunday, and on Friday they bake bread, while showering flour on everyone who wants to get a little happiness and good luck. The kids invited to the celebration have a special role - they are allowed to jump on the bed of the newlyweds so that they have many strong and healthy children.

In Germany, there is a wonderful custom: when newlyweds get married, they drink a glass of wine together. First, the groom drinks, and then the bride, after which she throws the glass behind her back. If it breaks, the spouses will have a long and happy life. According to another tradition, any of the male guests can try to “steal” the hero of the occasion during a banquet. If he succeeds, he is entitled to three whole dances with the bride.

wedding planner

In order to create an unusual and bright atmosphere at the wedding, in addition to the outward resemblance to the style, you can also adopt some of the wedding traditions of European countries.

Elena Sokolova

Reader

Most European traditions are aimed at attracting happiness, good luck, financial well-being and healthy children into the married life of young people.

Karina

In France, they are very sensitive to pre-wedding preparations. Literally every detail of the newlyweds' outfits, including even a belt or tie, is hand-sewn to individual measurements, and there are practically no bridal salons in this country. The whole French wedding is divided into three stages: a wedding in a church, a cocktail party and the main banquet. Not all guests are invited to each of these events, instructions for this are placed in the envelope with the invitation.

Many Italian customs are followed to this day. For example, the custom of carrying the bride across the threshold of the family home in her arms originated in this country. The Italians also came up with the name for the honeymoon - back in ancient Rome, newlyweds used honey for 30 days after the wedding to make life together sweet and pleasant.

Interesting! An Italian groom asks for the hand of his beloved from her mother, not from her father. If you are planning a European wedding, you can follow the tradition.

In Spain, despite the ardor of the nature of its inhabitants, young people who decided to get married were treated strictly. After the engagement, the bride and groom were closely watched, the maximum that they were allowed to do was hold hands, and then not in public.

The Spaniards created their male and female communities, one might say, according to their interests. Then such groups intersected with each other, and the girls could get acquainted with the boys, and the main criterion for choosing the second half on both sides was housekeeping.

The Irish are accustomed to celebrating a wedding on a royal scale. It is noteworthy that in most cases, matchmaking takes place in early January, as lovers try to get married before Shrovetide. Then Lent begins, and it is impossible to play a wedding according to the laws of this country.

An interesting tradition in Ireland is the Aitin Gander ritual. On the appointed day, the groom comes to the house of the bride's parents, where the young man is treated to a baked goose. Everyone who is involved in the organization of the wedding, up to the priest, is invited to the party, and all together they discuss the pressing issues of preparing the celebration.

Sweden has quite free wedding traditions. Girls and boys met at dances on weekends, after which the latter accompanied their chosen ones home and did not hesitate to stay the night. Because of this, often weddings took place when the bride was already pregnant, or even after the birth of a child. Interestingly, society did not condemn this, but, on the contrary, supported it, because this served as proof that the girl was healthy and capable of giving her husband heirs.

Interesting! Find out which are. This can be a nightmare...

Other countries

There are no less interesting and funny traditions in the rest of Europe. If desired, such customs can be observed at your own wedding in order to surprise guests and make the celebration individual.

For example, there are the following traditions associated with marriage.

Such customs do not carry anything bad, therefore, if you want to bring them to life, you can safely experiment.

Intersections with Russian customs

In each culture, the wedding will acquire new details and customs borrowed from other peoples. The most striking confirmation of this is It is believed that the unmarried girl who catches him will be the next to marry.

Previously, there was no such tradition in Rus', although it was similar in meaning. All the girls who had not yet started a family danced around the newlywed, and she closed her eyes and circled in the opposite direction. Whom she will show when she stops, she will marry next. And, by the way, Russian girls didn’t give the bouquet to anyone at all, keeping it in the family for good luck.

It is interesting that in many European countries and in Russia there is a similar The parents of the newlyweds bring fire from their home to help the newlyweds light their own. In the modern interpretation, the hearth is replaced by ordinary candles, since not everyone even has a fireplace.

If a European wedding is organized, traditions and customs make the celebration elegant and romantic. Many couples strive to plan their marriage in a Western manner, avoiding vulgar ransom, vulgar contests and other inappropriate events. Such customs will not only diversify the celebration, but also make it memorable for guests.

Culture and traditions of the peoples of Northern Europe

(English primary school students)

(Irishman with his toy)

(Prince Federik and Princess Mary, Denmark)

(Birthday Buffet)

(Indigenous Saami representative in Norway)

(Finns and their pride - deer)

Culture and traditions of the peoples of Western Europe

In the countries of Western Europe, the most numerous nationalities living here are Germans, French, Italians and Spaniards.

(in a french cafe)

(Germans at the festival)

(Spain's lively street buffet)

Culture and traditions of the peoples of Eastern Europe

The ancestors of the Eastern Slavs live on the territory of Eastern Europe, the most numerous ethnic groups are Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.

(Ukrainian lad with a girl)

Culture and traditions of the peoples of Central Europe

The peoples living in Central Europe include Poles, Czechs, Hungarians, Slovaks, Moldavians, Romanians, Serbs, Croats, etc.

(Poles on a national holiday)

(The Five Petal Rose Festival in the Czech Republic)

(Hungarian dances)

The peoples of Europe is one of the most interesting and at the same time complex topics in history and cultural studies. Understanding the peculiarities of their development, way of life, traditions, and culture will make it possible to better understand the current events that take place in this part of the world in various areas of life.

general characteristics

With all the diversity of the population living on the territory of European states, we can say that, in principle, they all went through one common path of development. Most of the states were formed on the territory of the former Roman Empire, which included vast expanses, from the Germanic lands in the west to the Gallic regions in the east, from Britain in the north to North Africa in the south. That is why we can say that all these countries, for all their dissimilarity, nevertheless formed in a single cultural space.

Path of development in the early Middle Ages

The peoples of Europe as a nationality began to take shape as a result of the great migration of tribes that swept the mainland in the 4th-5th centuries. Then, as a result of massive migration flows, a radical transformation of the social structure took place, which existed for centuries during the period ancient history, and new ethnic communities took shape. In addition, the formation of nationalities was also influenced by the movement that founded their so-called barbarian states on the lands of the former Roman Empire. Within their framework, the peoples of Europe were formed approximately in the form in which they exist at the present stage. However, the process of final national registration fell on the period of the mature Middle Ages.

Further folding of states

In the XII-XIII centuries, in many countries of the mainland, the process of formation of national identity began. It was a time when the prerequisites were formed for the inhabitants of the states to identify and position themselves precisely as a certain national community. Initially, this manifested itself in language and culture. The peoples of Europe began to develop national literary languages that determined their belonging to a particular ethnic group. In England, for example, this process began very early: already in the 12th century, the famous writer D. Chaucer created his famous Canterbury Tales, which laid the foundation for the national English language.

XV-XVI centuries in the history of Western Europe

The period of the late Middle Ages and early modern times played a decisive role in the formation of states. This was the period of the formation of monarchies, the formation of the main governing bodies, the formation of ways for the development of the economy, and, most importantly, the specificity of the cultural image was formed. In connection with these circumstances, the traditions of the peoples of Europe were very diverse. They were determined by the entire course of previous development. First of all, the geographical factor, as well as the peculiarities of the formation of national states, which finally took shape in the era under consideration, affected.

new time

The 17th-18th centuries is a time of turbulent upheavals for Western European countries that have experienced a rather difficult period in their history due to the transformation of the socio-political, social and cultural environment. It can be said that in these centuries the traditions of the peoples of Europe have been tested for strength not only by time, but also by revolutions. In these centuries, the states fought for hegemony on the mainland with varying success. The 16th century passed under the sign of the domination of the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs, the next century - under the clear leadership of France, which was facilitated by the fact that absolutism was established here. The 18th century shook its position largely due to the revolution, wars, as well as the internal political crisis.

Expansion of spheres of influence

The next two centuries were marked by major changes in the geopolitical situation in Western Europe. This was due to the fact that some leading states embarked on the path of colonialism. The peoples living in Europe have mastered new territorial spaces, primarily North, South American and Eastern lands. This significantly influenced the cultural appearance of European states. First of all, this applies to Great Britain, which created an entire colonial empire that covered almost half the world. This led to the fact that it was the English language and English diplomacy that began to influence European development.

Another event had a strong impact on the geopolitical map of the mainland - two world wars. The peoples living in Europe were on the verge of annihilation as a result of the devastation that was inflicted on her fighting. Of course, all this affected the fact that it was the Western European states that influenced the beginning of the process of globalization and the creation of global bodies to resolve conflicts.

Current state

The culture of the peoples of Europe today is largely determined by the process of erasing national boundaries. The computerization of society, the rapid development of the Internet, as well as wide migration flows have posed the problem of erasing national identity. Therefore, the first decade of our century passed under the sign of resolving the issue of preserving the traditional cultural image of ethnic groups and nationalities. Recently, with the expansion of the process of globalization, there is a tendency to preserve the national identity of countries.

Cultural development

The life of the peoples of Europe is determined by their history, mentality and religion. With all the diversity of the ways of the cultural appearance of countries, one general feature of development in these states can be distinguished: this is the dynamism, practicality, purposefulness of the processes that took place at different times towards science, art, politics, economics and society in general. Just for the last salient feature the famous philosopher O. Spengler pointed out.

The history of the peoples of Europe is characterized by the early penetration of secular elements into the culture. This determined such a rapid development of painting, sculpture, architecture and literature. The desire for rationalism was inherent in the leading European thinkers and scientists, which led to the rapid growth of technological achievements. In general, the development of culture on the mainland was determined by the early penetration of secular knowledge and rationalism.

Spiritual life

The religions of the peoples of Europe can be divided into two large groups: Catholicism, Protestantism and Orthodoxy. The first is one of the most common not only on the mainland, but throughout the world. At first, it was dominant in Western European countries, but then, after the Reformation that took place in the 16th century, Protestantism arose. The latter has several branches: Calvinism, Lutheranism, Puritanism, the Anglican Church and others. Subsequently, on its basis, separate communities of a closed type arose. Orthodoxy is widespread in the countries of Eastern Europe. It was borrowed from neighboring Byzantium, from where it penetrated into Rus'.

Linguistics

The languages of the peoples of Europe can be divided into three large groups: Romance, Germanic and Slavic. To the first belong: France, Spain, Italy and others. Their features are that they were formed under the influence of eastern peoples. In the Middle Ages, these territories were invaded by Arabs and Turks, which undoubtedly affected the formation of their speech features. These languages are distinguished by flexibility, sonority and melodiousness. It is not for nothing that most operas are written in Italian, and in general, it is considered one of the most musical in the world. These languages are easy enough to understand and learn; however, the grammar and pronunciation of French can cause some difficulties.

The Germanic group includes the languages of the northern, Scandinavian countries. This speech is distinguished by the firmness of pronunciation and expressive sound. They are more difficult to understand and learn. For example, German considered one of the most difficult among European languages. Scandinavian speech is also characterized by the complexity of sentence construction and rather difficult grammar.

The Slavic group is also quite difficult to master. Russian is also considered one of the most difficult languages to learn. At the same time, it is generally accepted that it is very rich in its lexical composition and semantic expressions. It is believed that it has all the necessary speech means and language turns to convey the necessary thoughts. It is indicative that the European languages at different times and centuries were considered world languages. For example, at first it was Latin and Greek, which was due to the fact that the Western European states, as mentioned above, were formed on the territory of the former Roman Empire, where both were in use. Subsequently, Spanish became widespread due to the fact that in the 16th century Spain became the leading colonial power, and its language spread to other continents, primarily to South America. In addition, this was due to the fact that the Austro-Spanish Habsburgs were the leaders on the mainland.

But subsequently, the leading position was taken by France, which, moreover, also embarked on the path of colonialism. Therefore, the French language spread to other continents, primarily to North America and North Africa. But already in the 19th century it became the dominant colonial state, which determined the main role of the English language around the world, which is preserved in ours. In addition, this language is very convenient and easy to communicate, its grammatical structure is not as complex as, for example, French, and due to the rapid development of the Internet in recent years, English has greatly simplified and become almost colloquial. For example, many English words in Russian sound came into use in our country.

mentality and consciousness

Features of the peoples of Europe should be considered in the context of their comparison with the population of the East. This analysis was carried out in the second decade by the well-known culturologist O. Spengler. He noted that for all European peoples, this is characteristic of which led to the rapid development of technology, technology and industry in different centuries. It was the latter circumstance that determined, in his opinion, the fact that they very quickly embarked on the path of progressive development, began to actively develop new lands, improve production, and so on. A practical approach has become a guarantee that these peoples have achieved great results in the modernization of not only economic, but also socio-political life.

The mentality and consciousness of Europeans, according to the same scientist, from time immemorial have been aimed at not only studying and understanding nature and the reality around them, but also at actively using the results of these achievements in practice. Therefore, the thoughts of Europeans have always been aimed not only at obtaining knowledge in its pure form, but also at using it in transforming nature for their needs and improving living conditions. Of course, the above path of development was also characteristic of other regions of the world, but it was in Western Europe that it manifested itself with the greatest completeness and expressiveness. Some researchers associate such a business consciousness and a practically oriented mentality of Europeans with the peculiarities of the geographical conditions of their residence. After all, the majority are small in size, and therefore, in order to achieve progress, the peoples inhabiting Europe went along, i.e., due to the limited natural resources, they began to develop and master various technologies to improve production.

Characteristic features of countries

The customs of the peoples of Europe are very indicative for understanding their mentality and consciousness. They reflect them and their priorities. Unfortunately, very often in the mass consciousness the image of this or that nation is formed according to purely external attributes. Thus labels are imposed on this or that country. For example, England is very often associated with stiffness, practicality and exceptional efficiency. The French are often perceived as a cheerful secular and open people, laid-back in communication. Italians or, for example, Spaniards seem to be a very emotional nation with a stormy temperament.

However, the peoples inhabiting Europe have a very rich and complex history, which left a deep imprint on their life traditions and way of life. For example, the fact that the British are considered homebodies (hence the saying “my house is my castle”) undoubtedly has deep historical roots. When fierce internecine wars were going on in the country, apparently, the idea was formed that the fortress or castle of some feudal lord was a reliable defense. The British, for example, have another interesting custom that also dates back to the Middle Ages: in the process of parliamentary elections, the winning candidate literally fights his way to his seat, which is a kind of reference to the time when there was a fierce parliamentary struggle. Also, the custom of sitting on a bag of wool is still preserved, since it was the textile industry that gave impetus to the rapid development of capitalism in the 16th century.

The French, on the other hand, still have a tradition of striving to express their national identity in a particularly expressive way. This is due to their turbulent history, especially in the 18th century, when the country experienced a revolution, the Napoleonic wars. During these events, the people felt their national identity especially keenly. The expression of pride in one's fatherland is also a long-standing custom of the French, which is manifested, for example, in the performance of the "La Marseillaise" to this day.

Population

The question of which peoples inhabit Europe seems to be very difficult, especially in view of the recent rapid migration processes. Therefore, this section should be limited to only a brief overview of this topic. When describing the language groups, it was already mentioned above which ethnic groups inhabited the mainland. Here, a few more features should be noted. Europe has been the arena since early middle ages. Therefore, its ethnic composition is extremely diverse. In addition, at one time, Arabs and Turks dominated its part, which left their mark. However, it is still necessary to point to a list of the peoples of Europe from west to east (only the largest nations are listed in this row): Spaniards, Portuguese, French, Italians, Romanians, Germans, Scandinavian ethnic groups, Slavs (Belarusians, Ukrainians, Poles, Croats, Serbs , Slovenes, Czechs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Russians and others). At present, the issue of migration processes, which threaten to change the ethnic map of Europe, is particularly acute. In addition, the processes of modern globalization and the openness of borders threaten the erosion of ethnic territories. This issue is now one of the main ones in world politics, so in a number of countries there is a tendency to preserve national and cultural isolation.

Like any other continent, Europe has its own traditions and customs. Some of them may be quite unusual for those who live in other parts of the world. Even the inhabitants of Europe may not know about others if the custom is common in only one country. All this is incredibly interesting, and sometimes useful; for example, a tradition called hygge would definitely be useful to anyone. Take a look at this list and think about what traditions you would like to follow?

Smearing the bride and groom with something sticky, and then sprinkling with feathers

This tradition was already almost forgotten, but miraculously returned and spread again in Scotland. The essence of this custom is that the bride and groom are kidnapped by their friends, after which they are covered with substances like flour, custard or soot, and then sprinkled with feathers. It is believed that this unusual procedure will bring good luck to the couple. Yes, the ritual may seem harsh enough, however, the bride and groom only strengthen the relationship, experiencing such an adventure together. Wedding Dress in the process they do not spoil, because everything happens not on the day of the wedding, but a few days earlier.

Calm attitude to being topless

In most countries of the world, even if the society is quite freedom-loving, it is forbidden for women to be naked in public. For example, in America it is embarrassing even to breastfeed a child, and going out topless on the street is simply unacceptable. However, for some Europeans, this is not a problem at all. In Germany, it is allowed to be naked in a sauna, swimming pool, park and on the beach. This is also the norm in Finland, where they are freely exposed to visit public sauna. In these countries, people are more relaxed about the issue of nudity, while in other continents, even in the bath, it is customary to stay in a towel or swimsuit.

Swedish tradition of cleaning before death

It may sound bleak, but the Swedes have a really practical approach. To protect their loved ones from the hard feelings after death, older people sort through their belongings in the last years of their lives. This does not mean that they plan to die. They simply go through all their belongings and get rid of unnecessary little things so as not to force relatives or friends to clean up at a difficult moment. This trend is not represented in other countries, however, it is gradually gaining popularity. It is not even necessary to associate it specifically with death - getting rid of unnecessary things is important at any age. This helps to feel calmer at home, without being distracted by clutter and unnecessary little things.

Entertainment for schoolchildren throughout the month in Norway

Norway takes graduation celebrations very seriously - they have a tradition that involves celebrations throughout the whole month. Young people drink any amount of alcohol they want and party all the time. There is nothing like it in the world. Sometimes this leads to negative consequences, such as injuries, however, as a rule, everything is in order. Older generations put up with this tradition, because it has existed for more than a hundred years. It is believed that this is permissible, because such fun happens only once in a lifetime. Otherwise, such behavior would be prohibited.

The Cozy Danish Secret of Happiness

Hygge is not just a tradition, it is a way of life for the inhabitants of the Scandinavian countries. Hygge has been around for centuries, according to Meik Wiking, who wrote a book about the tradition. This is a central part of Danish culture, familiar to every inhabitant of the country. It describes how one should live and relate to things. This concept may be the secret to happiness. You need to understand that this is a special approach to life. Some people think that hygge is just cozy and warm, but it's not just about aesthetics. The bottom line is to let go of the annoying things that stress you out emotionally and prioritize the things that really matter. It helps to feel comfortable own house and enjoy the simple moments of life.

Jumping over children in Spain

Jumping over children is the most unusual version of leapfrog you can imagine. The Spanish tradition has been observed every year for hundreds of years in the village of Castrillo de Murcia. During the festival, some people dress up as devils being cast out by the priests. They jump over children born in the previous year to protect them from illness and misfortune. This may seem dangerous, but there is no information about accidents, fortunately. Despite the absence of injuries, some want to cancel this religious festival. Even the Pope recommended that Spanish priests abandon this practice. Nevertheless, it is unlikely that the tradition, which has existed for several centuries, will quickly disappear - the locals love it very much.

Dangerous Cheese Tradition

Every year in Gloucestershire, England, people race for a head of cheese. Competitors chase a large head of Gloucester cheese as it rolls down a hillside, risking injury and falling. The tradition originated in the nineteenth century, although there are opinions that it has existed much longer. In 2009, the event was officially canceled because it attracted too many participants and spectators, which raised doubts about safety. Nevertheless, it turned out that this is too popular a tradition - unofficial events are still held. Interestingly, in other parts of England, people are not in a hurry to risk themselves for the sake of cheese. One way or another, the inhabitants of Gloucester do not plan to abandon their custom.

Rhinestones in the eyes in the Netherlands

If you have ever dreamed of your eyes shining brighter, you can quite literally achieve this. In the Netherlands, there is a procedure that allows you to implant jewelry in the eyes. It is reported that such decoration does not cause any side effects. In other countries, doctors usually do not dare to take such steps. Most likely, the trend will not spread, because some doctors are sure that this is dangerous.

Incredible boredom to fall asleep quickly in Norway

In Norway, there is an amazing way to fall asleep faster. The inhabitants of this country love to watch incredibly boring television shows. This genre is called "slow TV" and is the equivalent of neutral background music. Viewers turn on such programs when they want to acquire a background that does not attract all the attention. On the screen for several hours, people are shown who are busy knitting, or a burning fire. The genre is even spreading to other countries - everyone can test whether they can stay awake while watching something like this. One of the most popular shows is a train journey that lasts seven hours and includes only landscapes outside the window.

Bath regattas

This unique race is held in Belgium and has an unusual history. According to the Air Force, the first race was in 1982, when Alberto Serpagli found forty used tubs. They were sold for next to nothing in the local market. Bathtubs have been transformed into makeshift vehicles for moving on water. This is how the history of the regatta began, in which people go down the river, sitting in a bath or a boat created on its basis. This is a very popular event that takes place every year. Who would have thought that a bathtub could be used as a boat?