Modern sociological trends. Sociology as a science: main directions of development and current trends. The concept of multi-line development. Supporters of this direction believe that society develops according to its own laws, and every nation has

In the XX century. largely thanks to the “sociological material” accumulated in previous periods, numerous schools and trends (paradigms) arise in sociology. A paradigm is a certain idea of the nature of social reality or a scientifically based model, a model for posing problems and their solutions; a certain scientific direction in sociological science.

None of the paradigms in sociology is universal. Each reveals one or another perspective in the study of society. Therefore, any paradigm requires a serious attitude.

Let us consider some of the main paradigms of contemporary sociology.

Structural functionalism - one of the main trends in modern sociology. It is based on the idea of society as an integral system consisting of interconnected subsystems. Each subsystem, depending on the position it occupies in the system, performs a specific function peculiar only to it. Complementarity and interaction of subsystems provide the social system with structural and functional unity.

The foundations of the structural-functional paradigm were laid by G. Spencer and E. Durkheim, who compared the structure of society with a living organism, and individual subsystems with certain organs. A significant contribution to the formation and development of this trend in sociology was made by American sociologists R. Merton and T. Parsons.

Conflictological paradigm is, as it were, the opposite of functionalist theories, which presuppose a consensus interaction of various subsystems (social strata, classes) of society. The conflictological approach proceeds from the fact that social development occurs through the struggle of various social groups.

The conflictological paradigm of a non-Marxist orientation began to take shape in the 1950s and 1960s. 20th century thanks to the works of R. Dahrendorf, R. Mills, L. Koser, R. Moore, K. Boulding and others. Thus, according to the German sociologist Rolf Dahrendorf (born in 1929), conflict is the reverse side of any integration, and therefore it is inevitable.

In accordance with the theory of the class struggle of K. Marx, any class society is divided into two antagonistic (irreconcilable) classes, the struggle between which ends in a social revolution. In contrast to the Marxist theory, the conflictological paradigm proceeds from the fact that in a modern democratic society a great many local social conflicts arise between different groups. The multidirectional nature of these conflicts makes it possible to maintain relative stability in society, that is, it does not lead to social explosions. In addition, in an open society there are legal ways (mechanisms) for a relatively "bloodless" conflict resolution. The successful resolution of emerging social conflicts (according to R. Dahrendorf) testifies to the viability of society.

Behaviorism(from English, behavior- behavior) - one of the leading areas in American sociology - the science of behavior. Behaviorism is based on the problem of studying the visible forms of human behavior as a reaction to the influence of the external environment, according to the “stimulus-response” principle. The methodological premises of behaviorism are the principles of the philosophy of positivism and the structural-functional analysis of G. Spencer. Modern concepts in the theory of behaviorism were developed by E. Thorndike, J. Watson and others.

The peak of the influence of the ideas and methods of behaviorism in sociology falls on the 20s. 20th century Subsequently, he was repeatedly subjected to justified criticism for a simplified approach to the study of man and his behavior. The essence of the problem lies in the fact that classical behaviorism did not take into account mental and socio-cultural components in the study of the motives of people's behavior. At present, attempts are being made to update behaviorism. Its adherents strive to take into account the most diverse aspects of behavior in their research. Thus, a new (updated) direction in sociology arose - neobehaviorism.

Symbolic interactionism(from English, interaction - interaction) is one of the directions (paradigms) in modern sociology. The essence of this direction lies in the fact that in their research methods social behavior symbolic interactionalism (unlike behaviorism) takes into account both external manifestations and the inner world of a person. Proponents of this trend attach great importance to linguistic symbolism.

Symbolic interactionalism proceeds from the fact that in the course of conscious interaction people interpret (interpret) each other's actions, giving the latter certain meanings (symbols). Thus, they construct own behavior and contribute to changing social reality. It follows that the symbol plays a decisive role in the process of social interaction.

The theoretical and methodological foundations of symbolic interactionism were laid by such scientists as C. Cooley, G. Simmel, K. Boulding and others. The most significant contribution to its development was made by J. Mead, G. Kuhn, I. Hoffman, G. Bloomer , A. Strauss, T. Shibutani and others.

Supporters theories of social exchange consider exchange as a fundamental basis of social relations. According to this theory, everything that has social significance is subject to exchange. For example, labor is exchanged for material rewards, physical attractiveness - for welfare, etc. People with a higher social status can impose their terms of exchange on "lower" ones. Thus the problem arises unequal exchange.

The theoretical and methodological foundations of the concept of social exchange were laid by the founders of bourgeois political economy I. Bentham, A. Smith and others. Another source of it was the work of famous social anthropologists B. Malinovsky, J. Fraser, M. Moss. A significant contribution to the development of the sociological direction in the theory of social exchange was made by J. Homane, P. Blau, R. Emerson.

social constructivism. In the most accessible, in our opinion, form, the main provisions of social constructivism were outlined by P. Berger and T. Lukman in their joint work "The Social Construction of Reality" . The authors analyze the process of constructing social reality from simple forms of interaction to the creation of social institutions. This process is the objectification of subjective actions and meanings, i.e., their transformation into an ordered reality of everyday life. This reality exists as an obvious fact and requires no further verification.

A more complex process of constructing social reality is described by P. Bourdieu in his concept of constructivist structuralism. In this process, he gives priority to the predominantly propertied classes, who have the necessary capital to do so. The constructivist structuralism of P. Bourdieu gives clearer ideas about the subjects (agents) of the social field, their positions, due to the presence of capital; their abilities, opportunities and motivations in a certain (purposeful) construction of social reality; deepens the understanding that social reality can also be created by constructing virtual (symbolic) events.

Questions for self-examination

1. Why did sociology as an independent science emerge only in the middle of the 19th century?
2. Why did O. Comte call sociology a “positive” science?
3. Name the most famous sociologists late XIX- beginning of XX century.
4. What are the features of the development of sociology in Russia?
5. Name the main scientific directions (paradigms) in modern sociology.

Cm.: Kapitonov E. A. Sociology of the XX century. Rostov-n/D, 1996. S. 218-219.
Berger P., Lukman T. Social construction of reality. Treatises on the sociology of knowledge. Moscow: Academia-Center; MEDIUM, 1995.

Introduction

The development of sociology is a complex and multifaceted process. Sociological science in Russia has passed more than a century. For a long time, sociology was banned. It took a lot of effort for sociology to begin its revival and take its rightful place in the system of social sciences.

Sociology in the 21st century is going through difficult times that hinder its further development. The state of deep crisis in which science finds itself confronts it with a choice that will determine the future fate of sociology. The choice of the path of development of the domestic science of society, the path of rethinking the accumulated and the cultivation of the new.

Today, it is planned to overcome the theoretical and methodological crisis in which domestic sociological science has been in the last decade. In all major universities Departments and faculties of sociology were opened in Russia, which are engaged not only in the training of highly qualified personnel and research, which are quite traditional in their approaches and issues, but also attempts to develop new non-classical concepts and directions are presented. The expansion of sociology that took place in the 20th century continues to this day. Today, there are quite a few specialized areas: the sociology of everyday life, the sociology of personality, the sociology of the family, youth, culture, and others.

An object term paper- scientific achievements of Russian sociology in the 2000s.

The subject of the research is the scientific achievements of Russian sociology in the context of research problems and institutional development.

The aim is to study scientific achievements Russian sociology in the 2000s. research and institutional nature.

Work tasks:

1. To identify the problems and trends in the development of Russian sociology on the threshold of the 21st century.

2. Consider the main directions of modern sociology.

3. To study the development of sociology in Russia on the example of Moscow and St. Petersburg and regional sociological schools.

Chapter 1 Russian Sociology on the Threshold of the 21st Century

Problems and trends in the development of sociology

Over the past twenty years, the development of Russian sociology has largely synchronized with European and world sociology and, in doing so, has acquired not only pluses, but also minuses. To the latter, they added their own.

The journal Sociological Research highlighted the paradoxical fact of Russia's ability to "step on the same rake" over and over again and at the same time show little interest in the causes of the cataclysms that occurred.

Among sociologists, the question arises: is sociology really developing, that is, moving forward, progressing? The World Professional Forum talks about sociology in motion and sociology at the crossroads in a global era: old problems, new perspectives. In the sociological community, the opinion has been firmly established that modern sociology is in a prolonged crisis, as evidenced by the arguments of many famous sociologists.

As Andrey Alexandrovich Davydov said: “Modern sociology has degenerated into a specific intellectual discourse, far from the cognitive tasks of the scientific discipline and effective practical applications, based largely on social philosophy and the humanitarian paradigm, dogmatic admiration for the works of the classics of sociology, scholastic speculative speculations around content of fundamental sociological terms, sociological method and theoretical activity, arbitrary "author's" explanation of social phenomena and processes, "separation" of disparate empirical research from theory, "diluted" by the methods of mathematical statistics and weakly receptive to the achievements of other scientific disciplines useful for sociology.

Let us consider other signs that indicate that sociology is in a deep crisis. First, sociological theory is increasingly closed in on itself. Meanwhile, science becomes a science only when it can explain and predict the processes taking place in society, analyze various sociological categories and definitions. In essence, the appeal to the problems of society is the meaning of the existence of sociology. It arose from social needs, won recognition for its contribution to solving specific problems of the individual, groups, and societies. The current calls for a greater public role for sociology are related to the specific situation at the intersection of public demands and the work of sociologists.

Secondly, modern sociological theory is not always able to explain and analyze the causes of the processes taking place in the country. Qualitative research methods (for example, focus groups) are becoming increasingly popular among scientists. However, they do not always justify the hopes placed on them.

Thirdly, there was a division of sociology. On the one hand, on academic science, whose representatives read their courses at universities, publish monographs. On the other hand, to "sociology businessmen" who use sociological methods (first of all, mass surveys of the population) as a means of earning money.

It is difficult to disagree with the opinion of Zh. T. Toshchenko, who believes that the crisis of the conceptual apparatus is the personification of the crisis and disintegration of sociology.

Recently, theoretical sociology in our country has been developing largely due to the perception of Western sociological theories, both the most modern and those that have long since become classical.

It's time to choose a path and move forward. Copying Western models is an erroneous path, leading to the loss of original Russian science and its lagging behind the West. Understanding the theories of Western scientists can only be achieved if you have your own theoretical base.

To realize the accumulated potential, it is necessary to consolidate the sociological community, create conditions for the further dynamic development of sociological science, and strengthen its influence on social progress and the formation of civil society.

In the 21st century, the "double" lag of sociology must be eliminated. First, from the technical and natural sciences, which in the past century developed faster than the social sciences. Secondly, from the rapidly emerging social realities. These realities give rise to the need for new social concepts, new social theories. A further delay of sociology in responding to these challenges may have the most severe social consequences.

Thus, we can conclude that sociology as a science is a kind of outsider among the "community" of world sciences in a number of ways. But even this crisis, in which Russian sociology finds itself, does not mean that this is a state of impasse, on the contrary, it is a state of rethinking. Rethinking the ideas of the past and through this - the cultivation of the new.

The main directions of modern Russian sociology

The 20th century saw the expansion of sociology. Several specialized areas have emerged from it. Today there are quite a lot of such areas: the sociology of law, the sociology of the family, the sociology of youth, personality, culture, etc. We will consider some of them.

Political sociology is one of the ways to study a person in the political space, in the political environment, which includes the interaction of the social and the political, studies the phenomena political life not only as constant institutional values, but as a process and result of their transformation from a social substance into a political one. Among sociologists, one can name the names of well-known scientists who actively preach this science and use its main approaches in their research. In Moscow they are: M. K. Gorshkov, A. A. Degtyarev, V. O. Rukavishnikov, Zh. T. Toshchenko and others. Semenov and others. The subject field of political sociology is being developed quite intensively at the Altai, Volgograd, Voronezh, Rostov, Ural and other universities. in leading higher educational institutions specialists in this area are trained with the award of the degree of candidate and doctor of sociological sciences.

The arrangement of the problems that make up the "skeleton" of political sociology ensures its integrity and stability. Firstly, these are the classical sources of this branch of knowledge both abroad and in Russia; second, a sociological interpretation of human participation in the exercise of power functions; thirdly, the dynamics of interaction between parties and power structures; fourthly, - equilibrium as a dynamic value, denoting that any new state of equilibrium is the result of the successful implementation of their powers by power structures.

Sociology of education. During the formation of the sociology of education in the first decades of the 20th century, it was not entirely clear: does the new branch belong to sociology, or does it belong to pedagogy, psychology? At the heart of the crisis of the industry was insufficient attention to its own subject and categorical apparatus, central problems, integration and development of the industry. The same thing is observed now in the Russian sociology of education.

The development of the Russian sociology of education takes place in difficult conditions. Awareness of these complexities is the precondition for it to finally find its own ground, realize itself and its purpose in the system of social knowledge and society, and, therefore, be able to respond to the challenges of the current stage of development of Russia and global development.

Sociology of youth. In the sociology of youth, special attention is paid to the social development of young people in a risk society (Yu. G. Volkov, T. E. Petrova, V. I. Chuprov, and others). These features are determined by the state of social uncertainty, which manifests itself in inadequate reflection of young people on social changes. From what structures and relations are reproduced and updated by the younger generation, its own development and the development of society depend. However, in a risk society, development processes are spontaneous and often occur in conditions of dysfunctions of social institutions. Obviously, the main direction of youth policy should be its spiritual development. The materials of empirical research show the social policy of "patching holes" and the lack of a concept of personality formation on a national scale, which lead to an increase in crime and the emergence of risk groups among young people, the devaluation of labor and professional values in favor of career values as a way to achieve life goals.

In the sociology and demography of the family, attention is drawn to the theoretical concepts and paradigms of Russian demography (V. M. Medkov), the formation of demographic theory and the development of sociological studies of demographic behavior (N. V. Zvereva). The family is seen as a developing object of social protection and as a factor in the reproduction of social identity; analyzes the adaptive potential of the family and the problems of maladjustment in the transition period, the influence of the media on the formation of the image of the family in public opinion.

In accordance with social challenges, the positions of the sociology of regional development (V. V. Zyryanov, I. P. Ryazantsev, etc.), gender and socio-gender relations (T. A. Gurko, E. L. Omelchenko, etc.), deviant behavior (A.I. Dolgova, N.F. Kuznetsova, etc.), health care, agrarian, social sphere, which includes the sociology of social work, conflictology.

There has been increased attention to the dynamics of social differentiation - the social stratification of modern Russian society (Z. T. Golenkova) and the development of approaches to the study of the social structure of Russian society (T. I. Zaslavskaya, N. E. Tikhonova). New branches of sociological knowledge emerged, such as the sociology of global processes, tolerance and intolerance, etc. The science of social anthropology received a new impetus for development - anthropological problems are recognized as an organic part of Russian sociological knowledge. An analysis of these issues by leading scientists showed that it is necessary to correct the paradigm of cognition of social anthropology, which has studied the “process of social life” so far, along the vector “from society to culture, from it to man” (F. I. Minyushev). Anthropological analysis allows us to reveal the essence of modern social processes in the Russian society, which are actively developing under the influence of global changes.

Based on the foregoing, we can draw a completely justified conclusion: Russian sociology knows all its problems that hinder qualitative development, and if sociologists know their problems, then they definitely know the ways to solve them.

1. The main directions of modern Western sociology

In the 19th century Western Europe has been the center of sociological thought, but since the 1920s, the United States has been firmly holding the leading position in world sociology. Here, sociology initially developed as an applied empirical science, guided by the positivist idea of strict objectivity and accuracy of scientific data. Thanks to the efforts of American scientists, sociology is turning from a theoretical discipline into a special kind of practical research activity that finds support among various sections of society. However, in the 20th century V different countries In the world, fundamental academic sociology also actively developed, which led to a peculiar division of labor between applied and theoretical sociology.

Modern Western sociology is represented by a variety of schools and trends. And the classification of these areas is a very difficult task, since they are distinguished by the time of occurrence, and the theoretical orientation, and research methodology. There have been and still are many attempts to classify modern sociological views. Let's turn to one of the simplest, most understandable and most common.

Most sociological trends, based on their methodological and theoretical features, are divided into two large groups. The first is formed by "macrosociological" theories, which postulate the primacy of society in relation to the individual. They seek to describe the social patterns of a supra-individual order, and their logic of research involves moving from the general to the particular, from the concepts of "society" and "social system" to the concepts of "individual" and "personality". These theories originate in the views of O. Comte, G. Spencer, E. Durkheim, they also include such areas as structural-functional analysis (T. Parsons), conflict theories (L. Coser, R. Dahrendorf), structuralism (M. Foucault, K. Levi-Strauss), technological determinism (R. Dron, W. Rostow, J. Galbraith, D. Bell), neoevolutionism (L. White, J. Stewart, J. Murdoch), etc.

The second group is formed by "microsociological" theories, which, on the contrary, focus on the person, the individual, the personality. They try to explain general sociological patterns through an analysis of the inner world of a person and the characteristics of his interaction with other people. Accordingly, their research methodology involves moving from the particular to the general, from studying the “cells” of the social organism to characterizing society as a whole. The origins of this approach should be sought in the views of M. Weber and representatives of psychosociology (L. Ward, G. Tarde, V. Pareto). From modern trends it is developed by symbolic interactionism (J. Mead, C. Cooley, G. Blumer, A. Rose, G. Stone, A. Stress), phenomenological sociology (A. Schutz, T. Luckmann), exchange theory (J. Homans, P . Blau), ethnomethodology (G. Garfinkel, A. Sikurel) and others.

It should be noted that theories assigned to one methodological group can differ quite strongly from each other, both in the sphere of specific scientific interests and in the interpretation of the phenomena under consideration.

Let us briefly consider some of the most popular modern sociological trends.

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Let us consider some of the main paradigms of contemporary sociology.

Structural functionalism is one of the main methods in modern sociology. It is based on the idea of society as an integral system consisting of interconnected subsystems. Each subsystem, depending on the position it occupies in the system, performs a specific function peculiar only to it. Complementarity and interaction of subsystems provide the social system with structural and functional unity.

The conflictological paradigm is, as it were, the opposite of functionalist theories, which assume a consensus interaction of various subsystems (social strata, classes) of society. The conflictological approach proceeds from the fact that social development occurs through the struggle of various social groups.

The conflictological paradigm of a non-Marxist orientation began to take shape in the 1950s and 1960s. 20th century thanks to the works of R. Dahrendorf, R. Mills, L. Coser, R. Moore, K. Boulding and others. So, according to the German sociologist Rolf Dahrendorf (b. inevitable.

Behaviorism (from English behavior - behavior) - one of the leading trends in American sociology - the science of behavior. Behaviorism is based on the problem of studying the visible forms of human behavior as a reaction to the influence of the external environment, according to the “stimulus-response” principle. The methodological premises of behaviorism are the principles of the philosophy of positivism and the structural-functional analysis of G. Spencer. Modern concepts in the theory of behaviorism were developed by E. Thorndike, J. Watson and others.

Symbolic interactionism (from the English interaction - interaction) is one of the directions (paradigms) in modern sociology. The essence of this direction lies in the fact that in its methods of studying social behavior, symbolic interactionalism (unlike behaviorism) takes into account both external manifestations and the inner world of a person. Proponents of this trend attach great importance to linguistic symbolism.

Symbolic interactionalism proceeds from the fact that in the course of conscious interaction people interpret (interpret) each other's actions, giving the latter certain meanings (symbols). Thus, they construct their own behavior and contribute to changing social reality. It follows that the symbol plays a decisive role in the process of social interaction.

The theoretical and methodological foundations of symbolic interactionalism were laid by such scientists as C. Cooley, G. Zimmel, K. Boulding and others. The most significant contribution to its development was made by J. Mead, G. Kuhn / I. Hoffman, G. Bloomer , A. Strauss, T. Shi-butani and others.

Proponents of the theory of social exchange consider the exchange as a fundamental basis of social relations. According to this theory, everything that has social significance is subject to exchange. For example, labor is exchanged for material rewards, physical attractiveness - for welfare, etc. People with a higher social status can impose their terms of exchange on "lower" ones. Thus, the problem of unequal exchange arises.

Modern sociology is distinguished by an extraordinary variety of scientific schools and trends. All of them can be divided into two large groups: macro sociological theories And microsociological theories. Among the former, the most influential are structural functionalism and social conflict theory.

The conceptual and theoretical foundations of structural functionalism were developed by a prominent American sociologist Talcott Parsons(1902-1979), who proposed to consider society as an integral system consisting of functionally interconnected elements. Individuals, groups, collectives and other communities can act as such elements, within and between which functional relations are established. The nature of these connections and relationships made it possible to build a more or less complete picture of society. Naturally, with this approach, the idea of the subject of sociology also changed, which was completely reduced to the identification of social connections and interconnections.

Parsons tried to formulate universal principles for the functioning of social systems. He believed that any social system to maintain its balance should perform the following functions:

adaptation to environment(adaptation);
definition and achievement of goals (goal achievement);
coordination of functions and maintenance of internal unity (integration);
stress relief and reproduction of cultural value patterns, norms and standards of behavior (latency - maintaining the pattern).

At the level of society as a whole, the function of adaptation is performed by the economic subsystem, the function of achieving goals is performed by the political subsystem, the function of integration is performed by legal and sociocultural institutions, the latent function is performed by the institutions of the family, education, and religion.

Parsons viewed the development of society as an evolutionary process, characterized by the growing ordering of systemic relations, the increasing complexity of systems and the increase in their ability to meet their needs.

In contrast to the structural-functional approach, which emphasizes the stability of social systems and the evolutionary forms of their development, a conflictological direction has developed in modern sociology, the most famous representatives of which are the American sociologist L. Koser and German political scientist and sociologist R. Dahrendorf.

Lewis Coser(1913-2003) is the author theory of positive-functional conflict. Within the framework of this theory, the main thesis is substantiated that the stability of the social system does not exclude, but, on the contrary, implies a struggle of interests, social conflicts and clashes. According to the theory of L. Koser, social conflicts act as an integral attribute of social relations and perform such positive functions as the integration of the social structure, maintaining solidarity within groups, strengthening interpersonal relations, defusing tensions in society, etc.

Conflicts are also recognized to play an important role in the renewal of society: they not only give rise to new social institutions and norms, but also stimulate economic and technological progress.

Ralf Dahrendorf (1929-2009) made a significant contribution to the development of modern conflictology. developed the concept of a conflict model of society. The theoretical construction he proposed is based on four propositions: 1) every society is in the process of change at every moment; 2) in every society there is disagreement and conflict; 3) each element in society contributes to its integration and change; 4) each society is based on the dominance of some of its members over others.

The origin of social conflicts, their causes R. Dahrendorf explains mainly by political factors: it is a struggle for power, prestige, authority, the ability to dispose of resources. Conflicts can arise in any community where there is domination and subordination: some groups have power and seek to maintain it, while others are deprived of power and want to change the status quo.

Recognizing conflicts as the natural state of society, R. Dahrendorf, at the same time, believes that they should be legalized, institutionalized, and resolved on the basis of norms and rules existing in society. The most favorable conditions for the regulation of social conflicts exist, in his opinion, in a democratic, open society, which is characterized by political pluralism, a flexible system of government and high mobility (6.7).

If structural functionalism and conflictology explore social phenomena and processes at the level of society and its large structures, then microsociological theories focus on the study of people's behavior, their social relationships. To the main microsociological theories include symbolic interactionism, phenomenology, ethnomethodology, and social exchange theory.

theory creator symbolic interactionism considered a famous American philosopher, social psychologist and sociologist George Herbert Mead(1863-1931), who developed the initial principles of this sociological trend, which were developed in the works of his student Herbert Bloomer(1900-1986). The main tenets of symbolic interactionism boil down to the following:

people act, guided primarily by the symbolic meanings that they attach to certain objects;
the symbolic meanings themselves are the product of social interaction;
symbolic meanings arise and change through their interpretation and redefinition.

Considering social interaction as an exchange between people of social symbols (words, gestures, etc.) and as an interpretation of these symbols, representatives of symbolic interactionism believe that the study of direct interactions of individuals makes it possible to explain all social processes occurring in society.

Close to symbolic interactionism is phenomenological direction, the foundations of which were developed by the Austro-American philosopher and sociologist Alfred Schutz(1899-1959). This sociological school sees its goal in the knowledge of social reality through the study of people's daily lives, the analysis of everyday consciousness. Research focuses on identifying universal structures that emerge in the process of social interaction. The main methodological task of phenomenological sociology is the discovery of common, typical forms of organization of everyday life, since the everyday world is the "higher reality", where human subjectivity is embodied most consistently and fully.

Phenomenology is directly adjacent to the ethnomethodological direction in sociology, the founder of which is considered to be an American sociologist. Harold Garfinkel(b. 1917). Ethnomethodology considers social reality as a product of people's interpretive activity and focuses his efforts on empirical studies of single and local acts of social interaction as speech communication. At the same time, the main attention is paid to the study of everyday norms, rules of conduct, meanings of the language of communication, hidden mechanisms of interpersonal relationships in everyday life. Ethnomethodology criticizes the methods of traditional sociology as an artificial imposition ready schemes on real human behavior.

A special place among microsociological concepts is occupied by theory of social exchange, one of the authors of which is an American sociologist George Homans(1910-1989). The peculiarity of his approach was to apply the principles of behaviorism (from the English behavior - behavior, literally "the science of behavior") to explain social phenomena and processes. In the interpretation of J. Homans, social interaction acts as an exchange process, the participants of which strive to maximize benefits and minimize costs. Exchange is defined by four basic principles interpreted in the spirit of behaviorism:

success principle: the more often a given type of action is rewarded, the more likely it is to be repeated;
incentive principle: if the stimulus led to a successful action, then if this stimulus is repeated, this type of action will be reproduced;
value principle: the higher the value of the probable result, the more efforts are made to achieve it;
saturation principle: when needs are close to saturation, less effort is made to satisfy them.

With the help of these principles, J. Homans even tried to explain the processes taking place at the macro level, which revealed certain methodological flaws in this sociological trend.

It should be noted that in recent decades there has been a tendency to overcome the gap between macro- and microsociology. The successful solution of this urgent task could mean a transition to a qualitatively new stage in the development of modern sociology.