§ 15. AFANASIY NIKITIN'S JOURNEY TO INDIA The well-being of the Tver principality largely depended on the development of trade. Active and enterprising Tver merchants were known throughout Rus', in Lithuania, the Golden Horde, the Genoese colonies in the Crimea.

One of the first long-distance travelers was Afanasy Nikitin, who committed in the 60s of the XV century. travel from Russia (Tver) to India. His path at that time was unusually difficult. He had to endure a number of adventures and dangers. He lived in India for about three years.

On the way back, Afanasy Nikitin went through Persia, crossed the Black Sea and died on the way in Smolensk. Several notebooks were found in his travel bag, in which he kept travel notes. Subsequently, his recordings were published under the title "Journey Beyond the Three Seas". They contain interesting descriptions of his travels and the life of the people of India. Residents of the city of Kalinin (former Tver) erected a monument in memory of their compatriot (Fig. 3).

Finding a sea route to India

Western European merchants sold goods from India with great profit. Under India, people who knew little of geography understood the entire east of Asia, right up to China. For spices, pearls, ivory, fabrics brought from there, they paid in gold. There was little gold in Europe, and goods were very expensive. To the shores mediterranean sea from India they were delivered by intermediaries - Arab merchants. In the XV century, the Turks seized the lands in the east of the Mediterranean Sea - a huge Turkish Ottoman Empire arose. The Turks did not let trade caravans pass, often robbed them. We needed a convenient sea route from Europe to India, to the countries of the East. The Europeans took up the search for it - primarily the inhabitants of Portugal and Spain.

Portugal And Spain located in the south of Europe, Iberian peninsula. This peninsula is washed by both the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. For a long time it was under the rule of the Arabs. In the 15th century, the Arabs were expelled, and the Portuguese, pursuing them in Africa, began to sail off the coast of this continent.

Henry, Prince of Portugal, was nicknamed the Navigator. However, he did not swim anywhere. Heinrich organized sea expeditions, collected information about distant countries, looked for old maps, encouraged the creation of new ones, and founded a nautical school. The Portuguese learned how to build new ships - three-masted caravels. They were light, fast-moving, they could move under sail and with a side, and even with a headwind.

Expedition Bartolomeu Dias

Portuguese expeditions moved along the coast of Africa further and further south. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias sailed to the southern tip of Africa. Two of his ships fell into a cruel storm- a storm at sea. A strong wind drove the ships to the rocks. Despite the high waves, Diash turned from the shore into the open sea. For several days he sailed east, but the African coast was not visible. Dias realized that he had circled Africa and entered the Indian Ocean! The rock on which his ships almost crashed was the southern tip of Africa. Dias named her Cape Storms. When the sailors returned to Portugal, the king ordered that the Cape of Storms be renamed Cape of Good Hope, hopes to reach India by sea.

Voyage of Columbus

In the XV century. many sea expeditions were made. The most prominent of these is the Spanish expedition of Christopher Columbus. In 1492, members of the expedition on three ships sailed from the Iberian Peninsula to look for a sea route to India rich in gold and spices. Convinced of the sphericity of the Earth, Columbus believed that by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean, one could reach the shores of Asia. After a two-month voyage, the ships approached the islands of Central America. Travelers discovered many new lands.

Columbus made three more trips to America, but until the end of his life he was sure that he had visited India, and the islands he discovered are known as the West Indies (West Indian); The indigenous people are called Indians.

In the 19th century one of the republics of South America became known as Colombia.

Journey of John Cabot

The news of the discoveries of new lands by Columbus quickly spread throughout Europe, reached England. This country lies on the British Isles, separated from Europe the English Channel. In 1497, British merchants equipped and sent to the west an expedition of John Cabot, an Italian who had settled in England. The small ship sailed across the Atlantic far north of Columbus' ships. On the way, the sailors encountered huge shoals of cod and herring. Until now, the North Atlantic is the most important area in the world for catching these types of fish. John Cabot discovered the island Newfoundland at North America. Portuguese navigators discovered the cold harsh peninsula labrador. So the Europeans, five hundred years after the Vikings, again saw the North American lands. They were inhabited - American Indians came ashore dressed in animal skins.

Journey of Amerigo Vespucci

All new expeditions went from Spain to New World. In the hope of getting rich, finding gold, and becoming owners of new lands, Spanish nobles and soldiers went west. Together with them, priests and monks sailed - to convert the Indians to the Christian faith, to increase the wealth of the church. The Italian Amerigo Vespucci was a member of several Spanish and Portuguese expeditions. He compiled a description of the coast of South America. This area was covered with dense tropical forests, in which the brazil tree grew with valuable red wood. Later, they began to call all the Portuguese lands in South America and the huge country that arose on them - Brazil.

The Portuguese opened a convenient bay, where, as it seemed to them incorrectly, the mouth of a large river was located. It was in January, and the place was called Rio de Janeiro - "January River". Now here is The largest city Brazil.

Amerigo Vespucci wrote to Europe that the newly discovered lands most likely have nothing to do with Asia and represent New World. On European maps compiled during the first voyages across the Atlantic, they are called the land of Amerigo. This name was gradually assigned to the two huge mothers of the New World - North America and South America.

John Cabot's expedition was funded by patron Richard America. There is a widespread belief that the metric was named after him, while Vespucci had already taken his name from the name of the continent.

Expeditions of Vasco da Gama

First expedition (1497-1499)

In 1497, a Portuguese expedition of four ships led by Vasco da Gama went to look for a way to India. The ships rounded the Cape of Good Hope, turned north and sailed along the unknown eastern berets of Africa. Unknown to the Europeans, but not to the Arabs, who had commercial and military settlements on the shores. Taking on board an Arab pilot - a sea guide, Vasco da Gama sailed with him across the Indian Ocean, and then across the Arabian Sea to India. The Portuguese reached its western shores and safely returned to their homeland in 1499 with a cargo of spices and jewelry. The sea route from Europe to India was opened. It was found that the Atlantic and Indian oceans are connected to each other, the coasts of Africa, the island of Madagascar, were mapped.

Discovery of the Pacific Ocean (Vasco Balboa)

First trip around the world (Magellan)

From 1519 to 1522 expedition Fernando Magellan made the first circumnavigation of the world. The crew of 265 people on 5 ships set off from Spain to South America. Having rounded it, the ships entered the ocean, which Magellan called the Pacific. Swimming continued in incredibly difficult conditions.

On the islands off the coast of Southeast Azin, Magellan intervened in the feuds of the local authorities and died in one of the clashes with the locals. Only in 1522, 18 people on one ship returned to their homeland.

Journey of Magellan - the greatest event of the XVI century. The expedition, having gone west, returned back from the east. This journey established the existence of a single World Ocean; it was of great importance for the further development of knowledge about the Earth.

Second trip around the world (Drake)

The second circumnavigation of the world was made by an English pirate Francis Drake in 1577-1580. Drake was proud that, unlike Magellan, he managed not only to start, but also to complete the voyage himself. IN XVI-XVII centuries pirates, among whom there were many English and French, robbed Spanish ships, hurrying from America to Europe with expensive goods. Pirates sometimes shared part of the stolen wealth with the English kings, in exchange for rewards and patronage.

Drake's small ship, the Golden Hind, was blown south of the Strait of Magellan by a storm. The open sea lay before him. Drake realized that South America was over. Subsequently, the widest and deepest strait in the world between South America and Antarctica was named Drake Passage.

Having plundered the Spanish colonies on the Pacific coast of South and Central America, Drake was afraid to go back the old way, through the Strait of Magellan, where armed and angry Spaniards could wait for him. He decided to bypass North America from the north, and when this failed, he returned to England through the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic oceans, completely circumnavigating the globe.

The search for the southern mainland

Discovery of Oceania

The Portuguese sailed to India and to the spice islands around the African mainland. Spanish ships were looking for ways to Asia, sailing from the western coast of America. The sailors crossed the Pacific Ocean, discovering the islands along the way, which received the name of the islands Oceania. Navigators often kept their discoveries secret. Captain Torres discovered the strait between the island of New Guinea and lying south of Australia. Geographic discovery Torres Strait classified from the sailors of other countries by the Spanish authorities.

Discovery of Australia (Janszon)

Portuguese and Dutch sailors late XVI- at the beginning of the 17th century, they landed on the shores of northern and western Australia, replenishing their water and food supplies. At the same time, they did not think that they were setting foot on the coast of a new mainland. So, the Dutchman Janszon discovered the northern coast of Australia, but, knowing nothing about the Torres Strait, he believed that this was part of the island of New Guinea. In the 17th century, a small European country Holland ( Netherlands), lying in Europe on the coast North Sea, became a strong maritime power. Dutch ships sailed across the Indian Ocean to sunda islands. Big Java island became the center of the Dutch colonies.

Discovering New Zealand (Abel Tasman)

Europeans persistently searched for the southern mainland, shown on the ancient map of Ptolemy. In 1642, the Dutch captain Abel Tasman was sent by the Governor of Java to search for the South Land. The sailor dared to woo the daughter of the governor, and he considered it best to send him on a dangerous voyage. Tasman sailed far south, discovered a large island south of Australia, which was later named Tasmania. He described the entire northern coast of Australia, the smallest continent of the Earth, first named New Holland. Tasman sailed along for the first time New Zealand, considering its shores to be the shores of the unknown southern mainland. The Dutch tried to keep these discoveries secret so that other countries would not seize the newly discovered lands.

Conquest of Siberia

The Dutch scientist Bernhardus Varenius in the 17th century in his work “General Geography” for the first time singled out geography from the system of knowledge about the Earth, dividing it into general and regional. Varenius summed up the scientific results of the Great geographical discoveries of the 15th-16th centuries, which laid the foundation for modern look on the placement of continents and oceans on our planet. For the first time, he proposed to distinguish between five oceans: the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, North and South Arctic. Questions for this article:

A CONTEMPORARY AFANASIY NIKITIN

Studying the history of the famous "Journey Beyond the Three Seas" by Athanasius Nikitin (1466-1472), I decided to reveal the personality of Vasily Mamyrev in more detail than has been done so far by researchers. It was possible to establish that Vasily Mamyrev, the clerk of the Grand Duke, the highest official of the government office, left some traces of his state activities in Vladimir.

It is known that in the lists of the Lvov and II Sophia chronicles, before the “Walking” by Afanasy Nikitin, there is an introduction by an anonymous author: “In the same year, I received the writing of Ofonas Tveritin, a merchant who had been in Yndei for 4 years ...” At the end of the introduction, it is indicated that the manuscripts of Afanasy Nikitin were delivered Vasily Mamyrev. This happened in 1475, when the Russian merchants captured by the Turks in the Crimea were ransomed. The redeemed "guests" returned to Rus' through the Lithuanian possessions at that time - Kyiv and Smolensk. Probably it was from these former Turkish captives that Mamyrev received Journey Beyond the Three Seas. He, of course, could not ignore such a rare document. Mamyrev or the chronicler, to whom he gave the "Journey", tried to establish the exact dates of the wanderings of Afanasy Nikitich. They found out when the embassy of V. Papin left for the court of Shirvan Shah, when it returned from Shirvan. Apparently they were looking for Papin himself, but found out that he was killed near Kazan (in 1470, as I have now been able to clarify).

One way or another, but for us the most important fact remains that, in all likelihood, with the assistance of Vasily Mamyrev, the precious “notebooks” of the traveler in the same 1475 were introduced into the II Sofia Chronicle and thus gained wide popularity and immortality.

Speaking of Vasily Mamyrev, one cannot fail to mention his involvement in the history of the city of Vladimir. Fires were the scourge of this city. After one of the next fires, as evidenced by the Russian Chronicle under 1486, the city of Volodimer was cut down, and the deacon Vasily Mamyrev cut down.

But soon the city of Vladimir, restored by Mamyrev, was again unlucky. On May 25, 1491, “the whole city of Vladimir burned down, and all the churches burned down in the city 9, and in the suburb 13.” The flame threatened even the ashes of Alexander Nevsky, buried in the city monastery. And again, one of the Russian chronicles tells that in 1492 "the Grand Duke of his clerk Vasily Kuleshin sent to chop the city of Volodimer Drevyan according to Vasiliev's salary of Mamyrev and cut it down in 2 months."

Vasily Mamyrev himself could no longer take part in the restoration of Vladimir, which he had recently rebuilt. By that time, he was among the schema-monks of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery under the name of monk Barsanuphius and was close to death.

Chernets Barsanuphius died in 1491 "June on the 5th day from Saturday for a week at 3 o'clock in the morning." A detailed message was placed about his death in the Vologda-Perm Chronicle.

Researchers still have not thought about how to explain that I ... M. Karamzin, it was in the Trinity-Sergius library that the list of “Journey beyond the three seas” in the library of the monastery opened the oldest list “Journey beyond the three seas”. Varsonofy - Vasily Mamyrev did not take with him to the grave the secret of Afanasy Nikitin's notes. Meanwhile, it may be quite fair to assume that Mamyrev bequeathed his personal list of "Journey Beyond the Three Seas" to the library of the monastery.

Afanasy Nikitin - the first Russian traveler, author of "Journey Beyond the Three Seas"

Afanasy Nikitin, merchant from Tver. He is rightfully considered not only the first Russian merchant who visited India (a quarter of a century before the Portuguese Vasco da Gama), but also the first Russian traveler in general. The name of Afanasy Nikitin opens the list of brilliant and most interesting sea and land Russian explorers and discoverers, whose names are inscribed in golden letters on the world history of geographical discoveries.

The name of Athanasius Nikitin became known to contemporaries and descendants due to the fact that he kept a diary, or rather travel notes, throughout his stay in the East and India. In these notes, he described with many details and details the cities and countries he visited, the way of life, customs and traditions of peoples and rulers ... The author himself called his manuscript "Journey beyond the three seas." The three seas are Derbent (Caspian), Arabian (Indian Ocean) and Black.

Quite a bit did not reach on the way back A. Nikitin to his native Tver. His comrades handed over the manuscript of "Journey beyond the Three Seas" into the hands of the clerk Vasily Mamyrev. From him she got into the annals of 1488. Obviously, contemporaries appreciated the importance of the manuscript, if they decided to include its text in the historical chronicles.

N. M. Karamzin, the author of the “History of the Russian State”, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, accidentally stumbled upon one of the chronicles of the “Journey ...”. Thanks to him, the journey of the Tver merchant A. Nikitin became public knowledge.

The texts of A. Nikitin's travel notes testify to the broad outlook of the author, his good command of business Russian speech. When reading them, you involuntarily catch yourself thinking that almost all the author's notes are completely understandable, although they were written more than five hundred years ago!

Brief information about the journey of Afanasy Nikitin

Nikitin Afanasy Nikitich

Tver merchant. Year of birth unknown. Place of birth too. He died in 1475 near Smolensk. The exact start date of the trip is also unknown. According to a number of authoritative historians, this is most likely the year 1468.

Purpose of Travel:

an ordinary commercial expedition along the Volga as part of a caravan of river boats from Tver to Astrakhan, establishing economic ties with Asian merchants trading along the Great Silk Road passing through the famous Shemakha.

This assumption is indirectly confirmed by the fact that Russian merchants went down the Volga accompanied by Asan bey, ambassador of the sovereign Shamakhi, Shirvan Shah Forus-Esar. Shemakhan's ambassador Asan-bek was on a visit to Tver and Moscow with the Grand Duke Ivan III, and went home after the Russian ambassador Vasily Papin.

A. Nikitin and his comrades equipped 2 ships, loading them with various goods for trade. The commodity of Afanasy Nikitin, as can be seen from his notes, was junk, that is, furs. Obviously, ships and other merchants sailed in the caravan. It should be said that Afanasy Nikitin was an experienced, courageous and resolute merchant. Before that, he visited distant countries more than once - Byzantium, Moldova, Lithuania, Crimea - and safely returned home with overseas goods, which is indirectly confirmed in his diary.

Shemakha

one of the most important points throughout the Great Silk Road. Located on the territory of present-day Azerbaijan. Being at the crossroads of caravan routes, Shamakhi was one of the major trade and craft centers in the Middle East, occupying important place in the silk trade. Back in the 16th century, trade relations between Shemakha and Venetian merchants were mentioned. Azerbaijani, Iranian, Arab, Central Asian, Russian, Indian and Western European merchants traded in Shamakhi. Shemakha is mentioned by A. S. Pushkin in “The Tale of the Golden Cockerel” (“Give me a girl, the Shemakhan queen”).

A. Nikitin's caravan enlisted travel letter from Grand Duke Mikhail Borisovich to move around the territory of the Tver principality and grand ducal travel charter abroad, with which he sailed to Nizhny Novgorod. Here they planned to meet with the Moscow ambassador Papin, who was also on his way to Shemakha, but did not have time to capture him.

Departed from the Savior of the holy golden-domed and succumbed to his mercy, from his sovereign from Grand Duke Mikhail Borisovich Tversky ...

It is interesting that initially Afanasy Nikitin did not plan to visit Persia and India!

Historical setting during the journey of A. Nikitin

Golden Horde, which controlled the Volga, in 1468 was still quite strong. Recall that Rus' finally threw off the Horde yoke only in 1480, after the famous “standing on the Ugra”. In the meantime, the Russian principalities were in vassal dependence. And if they regularly paid tribute and "did not show off", then they were allowed some freedoms, including trade. But the danger of a robbery always existed, so the merchants gathered in caravans.

Why does a Russian merchant address Mikhail Borisovich, Grand Duke of Tverskoy, as a sovereign? The fact is that at that time Tver was still an independent principality that was not part of the Muscovite state and was constantly fighting with it for primacy in the Russian lands. Recall that finally the territory of the Tver principality became part of the Moscow kingdom under Ivan III (1485).

P consolation A. Nikitin can be divided into 4 parts:

1) travel from Tver to the southern shores of the Caspian Sea;

2) the first trip to Persia;

3) a trip to India and

4) the return journey through Persia to Rus'.

Its entire path is clearly visible on the map.

So, the first stage is a journey along the Volga. It went well, right up to Astrakhan. Near Astrakhan, the expedition was attacked by robber gangs of local Tatars, the ships were sunk and looted

And I passed Kazan voluntarily, we didn’t see anyone, and I passed the Horde, and Uslan, and Saray, and I passed the Berekezans. And we drove to Buzan. Then three filthy Tatars ran into us and told us false news: "Kaisym Saltan guards the guests in Buzan, and with him three thousand Tatars." And the ambassador of the Shirvanshin Asanbeg gave them a single coat and a linen to take them past Khaztarakhan. And they, filthy Tatars, took one by one, but they gave the news to Khaztarakhan (Astrakhan) king. And the yaz left his ship and climbed on the ship for a word and with his comrades.

We drove past Khaztarakhan, and the moon was shining, and the tsar saw us, and the Tatars called to us: "Kachma, don't run!" And we didn’t hear anything, but we ran like a sail. Because of our sin, the king sent his entire horde after us. Ini overtook us on Bohun and taught us to shoot. And we shot a man, and they shot two Tatars. And our smaller ship was on the move, and they took us and plundered us that hour , and mine was small junk all in a smaller vessel.

The bandits took away from the merchants all the goods, bought, obviously, on credit. Returning to Rus' without goods and without money threatened with a debt hole. Comrades Athanasius and himself, in his words, " crying, yes, they dispersed in different directions: whoever has something in Rus', and he went to Rus'; and who should, and he went where his eyes carried.

Reluctant traveler

Thus, Afanasy Nikitin became an unwilling traveler. The way home is booked. Nothing to trade. There was only one thing left - to go to intelligence in foreign countries in the hope of fate and one's own enterprise. Having heard about the fabulous riches of India, he directs his steps precisely there. through Persia. Pretending to be a wandering dervish, Nikitin stops for a long time in each city, and shares his impressions and observations with paper, describing in his diary the life and customs of the population and rulers of those places where his fate brought him.

And the tongue went to Derbent, and from Derbent to Baka, where the fire burns unquenchable; and from Baki you went across the sea to Chebokar. Yes, here you lived in Chebokar for 6 months, but in Sarah lived for a month, in the Mazdran land. And from there to Amily, and here I lived for a month. And from there to Dimovant, and from Dimovant to Ray.

And from Drey to Kashen, and here I was a month, and from Kashen to Nain, and from Nain to Ezdei, and I lived here for a month. And from Dies to Syrchan, and from Syrchan to Tarom .... And from Torom to Lara, and from Lara to Bender, and here there is a refuge of Gurmyz. And here is the Indian Sea, and in the Parsian language and Gondustanskadoria; and from there go by sea to Gurmyz 4 miles.

The first journey of Athanasius Nikitin through the Persian lands, from the southern shores of the Caspian Sea (Chebukara) to the shores of the Persian Gulf (Bender-abasi and Hormuz), lasted more than a year, from the winter of 1467 to the spring of 1469.

Russian travelers and pioneers

Again Travelers of the Age of Discovery