Module 6: The evolution of wildlife

Assignments on the topic: Evolution are collected from various sources of assignments in preparation for the exam. Assignments in the form of a brochure that are distributed to students. In total, there are seven sub-themes on the theme of the Evolution of Wildlife. For each subtopic, a list of biological concepts is given first, which students hand over to the teacher orally. And the tasks themselves are solved in the classroom or at home.

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Topic 6. Evolution of wildlife.

Topic 6.1. The evolutionary theory of Ch. Darwin. Synthetic theory of evolution

Carl Linnaeus. J.B. Lamarck. The main driving forces of evolution: hereditary variability, the struggle for existence, natural selection. Forms of variability: definite, indefinite, correlative. Three forms of struggle for existence: intraspecific, interspecific, struggle against unfavorable conditions. Divergence, convergence. Provisions of the synthetic theory of evolution (10 provisions).

Tasks 6.1.

  1. When forming ideas about artificial selection, Charles Darwin relied on (paleontological finds, knowledge of the methods and results of selection, the study of island floras and faunas, and the discovery of transitional forms of organisms).
  2. The intensity of reproduction and the limited resources for the life of organisms are the cause (natural selection, the formation of fitness, the struggle for existence, hereditary variability).
  3. What are the reasons for the diversity of species in nature? (seasonal and daily changes in nature, the adaptability of organisms to the environment, hereditary variability and natural selection, the struggle for existence and artificial selection).
  4. According to Darwin's theory, the action of natural selection leads to (mutational variability, the preservation of traits useful for humans, the free interbreeding of organisms, the emergence of new species).
  5. An example of an intraspecific struggle for existence is () the rivalry of males over a female, the fight against the drought of desert plants, the battle of a predator with a prey, the eating of fruits and seeds by birds).
  6. Under the influence of what factors did desert plants develop adaptation to life in arid conditions? (competition of some species with others, adverse environmental conditions, hereditary variability and natural selection, modification variability and the struggle for existence).
  7. Which of the factors of evolution is guiding? (genetic drift, isolation, gene mutations, natural selection).
  8. Intraspecific struggle plays an important role in evolution, as it

Sharpens the competition

Promotes volatility

Increases species diversity

Leads to isolation of populations of one species

Is a precondition for natural selection

  1. In the process of evolution, under the action of driving forces,

Population fluctuations

The cycle of matter and the transformation of energy

Improving the adaptability of organisms to the environment

Formation of new species

mutation process

  1. Establish a correspondence between the process occurring in nature and the form of the struggle for existence

6.2. driving forces of evolution. Natural selection.

Driving forces of evolution: mutation process, combinative variability, population waves, genetic drift, migration of individuals, isolation and natural selection.

Forms of natural selection: stabilizing, driving and disruptive.

Tasks 6.2.

  1. Which of the forms of struggle for existence is the most severe? Explain the answer.
  2. What are the consequences of the struggle for existence?
  3. The elementary structure at the level of which the action of natural selection is manifested in nature (organism, population, species, biocenosis).
  4. The consequence of the isolation of a small population is (migration of individuals to a neighboring territory, violation of its sex composition, inbreeding, violation of its age composition).
  5. Many species of animals and plants consist of several populations, which (violates the stability of species, increases the fluctuation in the number of individuals, causes natural selection, ensures the diversity of their gene pools).
  6. What selection increases the resistance of insects to pesticides (moving, artificial, methodical, stabilizing).
  7. Due to what form of natural selection did lobe-finned fish survive in nature? (methodical, driving, stabilizing, tearing).
  8. The genetic heterogeneity of individuals in a population is enhanced

Mutational variability

Geographic isolation

Struggle for existence

artificial selection

Migration of individuals

  1. The driving forces of evolution are

Abiotic environmental factors

mutation process

Modification variability

isolation

Natural selection

  1. The result of evolution is

Gene drift

Variety of species

Mutational variability

Adaptation of organisms to the environment

Increasing the organization of living organisms

Struggle for existence

  1. Establish a correspondence between the trait and the form of natural selection.
  1. Explain the significance of mutations for the evolution of the organic world. List at least three features.

Topic 6.3. View, its criteria. population.

Results of evolution: fitness and speciation

View. Species criteria: morphological, genetic, physiological, biochemical, geographical, ecological. population.

Microevolution. Viddobrazovanie: geographical and ecological. Fitness. Types of adaptations: mimicry, camouflage, protective coloration, warning coloration,

Tasks 6.3.

  1. Define microevolution. What does it lead to?
  2. Explain why only using the entire set of criteria, it is possible to reliably distinguish one species from another?
  3. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics and forms of natural selection to which they should be attributed
  1. In the industrial regions of England during the 19-20 centuries. the number of moth butterflies with dark wings increased compared to the number of butterflies with light colors. Explain this phenomenon from the standpoint of evolutionary teaching and determine the form of natural selection.
  2. The area occupied by a species in nature is a criterion (morphological, systematic, ecological, geographical).
  3. The totality of the environmental factor in which the species lives is a criterion (geographical, ecological, physiological, morphological).
  4. In the specified list, find an example of ecological speciation (Amur and Central Asian subspecies of badgers, Transcaucasian and Far Eastern lily of the valley species, western and eastern subspecies of lumbago in Europe, populations of Sevan trout with different spawning periods).
  5. What type of protective coloration is called mimicry? (dissecting color of the body, bright color signaling the toxicity of the organism, defeat in the color of an unprotected species to a protected species, color of the animal's body merging with the surrounding background).
  6. Select the sentences that describe the environmental criteria.

The house mouse is a mammal of the genus Mice. The original range is North America, the tropics and subtropics of Eurasia. It lives both in natural conditions and in human dwellings. In nature, it feeds on seeds. Leads a nocturnal and twilight lifestyle. Usually 5 to 7 babies are born in a litter.

  1. The genetic criterion of a species is characterized by the following features

A certain set of chromosomes in germ cells

A set of external and internal signs of an organism

The sequence of nucleotides in DNA molecules

Settlement of a specific geographical area

Belonging to a specific population

A specific set of genes

  1. In geographic speciation, the formation of a new species occurs as a result of

Decay of the original range

artificial selection

Narrowing the norm of the reaction of signs

Gene drift

The occurrence of a natural barrier in the territory

  1. Establish a correspondence between the sign of the liver fluke and the criteria of the species
  1. Establish a correspondence between the sign of the gray rat and the criteria for the species
  1. Establish the sequence of stages of changing the color of the wings of the moth moth in the evolutionary process, starting with the characteristics of the environmental background.

Preservation of dark butterflies through selection

Changing the color of birch trunks due to environmental pollution

Reproduction of dark butterflies, preservation of dark individuals in a number of generations

Catching light butterflies by birds

Change after some time in the color of individuals in the population from light to dark.

Topic 6.4. Evidence for the evolution of wildlife.

Evidence for evolution: paleontological, embryological, comparative morphological, biogeographic. Law of germinal similarity Karl Baer. Haeckel-Muller biogenetic law. Homologous, similar organs. Rudimets, atavisms. Endemics, relics.

Tasks 6.4.

  1. Read the text. Choose the sentences that match the description of geographic speciation.

As established by Charles Darwin, and then confirmed by other scientists, the formation of new species in nature occurs under the influence of the driving forces of evolution. The initial evolutionary processes occurring within a species and leading to the formation of new populations and subspecies are referred to as microevolutionary changes. In some cases, speciation is associated with the expansion of the range of the original species. In other cases, populations of one species may remain within their range, but their habitat conditions turn out to be different. Trout populations have formed in Lake Sevan, differing in different spawning periods. Populations of Sevan trout also differ in places and depth of spawning grounds.

  1. Establish a correspondence between characters and groups of organisms.
  1. Analyze the "Form of Natural Selection" graph. RICE

Select statements that can be formulated based on the analysis of the chart.

Provide the greatest similarity of individuals in populations

Leads to the death of a previously numerous part of the population, consisting of individuals of the middle type

It is aimed at establishing the average value of the trait in the population

Operates only under constant environmental conditions

Creates many adaptive foci along the periphery of the old adaptation of the population

  1. Establish a correspondence between the signs and forms of natural selection
  1. Read the text. Select the sentences that describe the ecological criteria for the species Stinging nettle.
  1. Read the text. What type criteria are described in the text.

The body length of the American mink is about 45 cm, the tail length reaches 15-25 cm, and the weight is up to 1.5 kg. The American mink inhabits almost all of North America, with the exception of the northeast and extreme south. It is acclimatized in many parts of Europe and North Asia. Throughout the year, the mink regularly changes habitats and sometimes leaves water bodies during migrations.

  1. Organs that perform the same functions, but do not have a similar structural plan and a common origin, are called (atavisms, similar, homologous, rudimentary).
  2. Consider a fossil transitional form (mammoth, saber-toothed tiger, dinosaur, Archeopteryx).
  3. Embryological evidence of evolution includes (the cellular structure of organisms, the presence of similar organ systems in vertebrates, the similarity of vertebrate embryos, the similarity of life processes in animals).
  4. The development of multicellular organisms from a zygote serves as evidence (of the origin of multicellular organisms from unicellular organisms, the adaptability of an organism to its environment, the individual development of plants and animals, the influence of the environment on the development of organisms).
  5. Biogeographic evidence of evolution includes (the presence of similar organs in animals, fossil transitional forms, island flora and fauna, the presence of rudimentary organs in plants).
  6. Methods for studying evolution include

hybridological

paleontological

Genealogical

Embryological

cytogenetic

  1. The following are examples of evidence for evolution. All but two of them are used as comparative anatomical evidence. Find two examples that "drop out" of the general series.

The similarity of the embryos of different classes of vertebrates

Remains of the pelvic girdle of a whale

Gills of cancer and fish

tendrils of grapes and peas

Transitional form of plants - rhinophytes

  1. Match the claim with the evidence for evolution.
  1. Establish a correspondence between the example and the type of comparative anatomical evidence for evolution.
  1. What is the name of the evolutionary series of the ancestors of the modern horse? What changes have occurred in the limbs of the horse? List at least three features.

Macroevolution. Phylogenesis. Biological progress, regression. Ways of evolution: aromorphosis, idioadaptation, general degeneration. Forms of evolution: phyletic, divergent, convergent, parallel.

Tasks 6.5.

  1. Read the text. Choose the sentences that match the description of ecological speciation

The formation of new species in nature occurs under the influence of the driving forces of evolution. Speciation may be associated with range expansion. New species are formed if the range of the original species is torn by physical barriers. Populations of the same species may remain within their range, but their habitat conditions are different. With the advance of Siberian larch into more severe living conditions, a new species was formed - Dahurian larch. Five species of tits common in central Russia differ in food specialization and habitat.

  1. Read the text. Select the sentences that describe the morphological criterion of the type of Dika pig - wild boar.

In Europe, wild boars are especially fond of oak and beech forests. These animals are covered with bristle-like hair. The body color of adult boars varies from dark gray to brown. Animals lead a herd life. It is born in wild boars from 1 to 12 piglets. Juveniles have light yellow stripes.

  1. After a snowstorm, birds with an average wing length survived, while long-winged and short-winged birds died. In this case, there is selection: (stabilizing, moving, disruptive).
  2. An example of the action of a driving form of natural selection: (death during a hurricane of long-winged and short-winged sparrows, survival of small crabs in muddy water, the respiratory gaps of which are not clogged, the appearance of plant populations in hay meadows that bloom before and after mowing).
  1. Establish a correspondence between features honey bee and type criteria.
  1. Read the text. Select the sentences that describe the ecological criterion of the Common Dolphin species.

The common dolphin is an animal that is widespread in the oceans, but adheres to the open sea. Body size 160-260 cm. Males are 6-10 cm larger than females. Animals lead a herd life. Pregnancy of females lasts 10-11 months. In the Black Sea, dolphins feed on anchovy, haddock, horse mackerel and other fish species.

General rise of the organization

Decreased intensity of vital activity

Organization Downgrade

Devices of a private nature

Simplification nervous system due to a sedentary lifestyle

  1. Aromorphoses are

Development of a large number of lateral roots of cabbage after hilling

The appearance of "parachutes" in dandelion fruits

Emission of odorous substances by fragrant tobacco

Double fertilization in flowering plants

The appearance of mechanical tissues in plants

  1. Establish a correspondence between the organism and the direction of evolution
  1. Establish a correspondence between an example and a form of evolution
  1. What characterizes biological progress in flowering plants? List at least three features.
  2. Read the text. Select the sentences that characterize idioadaptations.

Some evolutionary changes lead to the formation of large groups of animals: types, classes. Other evolutionary changes lead to the formation of families, genera, and species. The transition of finches to different food sources (seeds, fruits, insects) caused them to change the shape of their beak. Changes occur not only in animals, but also in plants, for example, the appearance of tissues and organs. important event in the life of plants there was the appearance of flowers and fruits. Flowers and fruits can vary in color, size, shape and structure.

Topic 6.6. Hypotheses for the origin of life on Earth.

Stages of development of the organic world on Earth.

Hypotheses for the origin of life on Earth. Biopoiesis. Evolution of the organic world. The main features of the evolution of the plant world. The main stages of plant evolution: algae, rhinophytes, mosses, ferns, gymnosperms, angiosperms.

The main features of the evolution of the animal world. The main stages of animal evolution: protozoa, coelenterates, worms, arthropods, chordates.

Tasks 6.6.

  1. Set the sequence of stages of geographic speciation.

The emergence of mutations in isolated populations

Emergence of territorial isolation between populations of the same species

Preservation by natural selection of individuals with traits useful for new conditions

Reproductive isolation between individuals of different populations

Formation of a new subspecies

  1. Establish a correspondence between species and directions of evolution
  1. Industrial melanism is an example of the action of selection: (stabilizing, driving, disruptive).
  2. To combat pests of agricultural plants, new types of pesticides are constantly used. Under the influence of what evolutionary factors do insect populations appear that are resistant to a particular pesticide?
  3. Read the text. Select the sentences that describe the biochemical criterion of the species Red clover.

Plants of the species Clover meadow are common in meadows, fields, gardens and forests. The green mass of plants contains a large amount of essential oils and tannins. The leaves also form a substance with anti-bending properties. Red clover plants enter into symbiosis with nodule bacteria. The roots of red clover accumulate up to 150 kg/ha of nitrogen, which enters the plant nodules from the atmosphere and forms nitrogen salts there. The flowers are pollinated by bumblebees and form single-seeded fruits.

  1. Establish a correspondence between examples and forms of evolution
  1. It is extremely rare that there are cases of the birth of children with thick body hair, which proves the animal origin of man. What is the name of such a phenomenon? Explain why this trait does not develop in all representatives of the species. Give two more examples of other similar phenomena.
  2. Establish the sequence of appearance of aromorphoses in the evolution of vertebrates (the appearance of a three-chambered heart, the appearance of alveolar lungs, the development of an embryo in an egg, external fertilization).
  3. Establish a correspondence between the signs and ways of achieving biological progress in evolution by organisms
  1. Read the text. Select the sentences that characterize aromorphoses.
  1. The appearance of what gas in the Earth's primary atmosphere caused the rapid development of life on land? (hydrogen sulfide, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide).
  2. In the process of the historical development of the animal world of the Earth, the appearance of amphibians was preceded by (ichthyosaurs, reptiles, lobe-finned fish, mammal-toothed mammals).
  3. What does the similarity in the structure and vital activity of algae and mosses indicate? (on the diversity of the plant world, on the relationship and unity of the plant world, on the complication of plants in the process of evolution, on life in humid environmental conditions).
  4. The emergence of ferns in the history of the nature of the Earth is evidenced by (the existence of herbaceous and woody forms, the presence of their imprints and fossils, their mode of reproduction, their modern diversity).
  5. Establish in what sequence in the process of evolution the main groups of plants appeared on Earth.

Rhyniophytes

Multicellular algae

Angiosperms

unicellular algae

ferns

  1. Establish in what sequence the types of invertebrates should be arranged, taking into account the complication of their nervous system in evolution.

flatworms

arthropods

Coelenterates

annelids

  1. Establish the sequence of appearance of aromorphoses in the evolution of vertebrates

Two-chambered fish heart

Development of a baby in a mammalian uterus

Internal fertilization in reptiles

Pulmonary respiration in amphibians

  1. Establish the chronological sequence of the appearance on Earth of the main groups of animals.

flatworms

arthropods

annelids

Simple

Coelenterates

  1. Establish the sequence of processes in the emergence of life on Earth.

The emergence of the nucleus in the cell

Formation of coacrvats

Formation of the outer membrane in the primary cell

Formation of organic compounds

  1. Establish the chronological sequence of eras on Earth.

archaeus

Paleozoic

Mesozoic

Proterozoic

Cenozoic

Topic 6.7. Anthropogenesis. human races.

Anthropology. Human systematics. Relationship between humans and animals. Features person. Driving Forces of Human Evolution: Biological and Social Factors. Stages of anthropogenesis: dryopithea, australopithecines, Neanderthals, Cro-Manos. human races.

Tasks 6.7

  1. Establish a sequence of stages in the formation of fitness in the process of evolution

Conservation by selecting individuals with beneficial mutations

The occurrence of random mutations in individuals of a population

Increasing the number of individuals in a population with beneficial mutations

Formation of a population with useful traits in changing conditions

  1. Read the text. Select the sentences that describe the physiological criterion of the Asian porcupine species.

In the Asiatic porcupine, the longest and sparser spines grow on the loin. Animals of this species are active at night. They breed 1-2 times a year. Pregnancy of females lasts 110-115 days. Porcupines feed on fresh greens, roots, bulbs, club fruits, and seeds of trees and shrubs. Usually in broods there are two cubs.

  1. What is genetic drift and population waves?
  2. Arrange the groups of chordates in order of complexity of their level of organization in the process of evolution (amphibians, reptiles, fish, mammals, non-cranial.)
  3. Establish a correspondence between the features of the mole and the criteria of the species.
  1. The wasp fly is similar in color and body shape to a wasp. Name the type of protective device, explain its significance and the relative nature of fitness.
  2. What organisms are transitional? (bunchopteryx, seed ferns, archeopteryx, nimble lizard).
  3. Read the text. Select the sentences that characterize the idioadaptations

Some evolutionary changes in the structure of plants and animals lead to an increase in the vital activity of organisms. There are evolutionary changes accompanied by the transition of organisms to another habitat (whales, dolphins). Changes occur in both animals and plants, such as the appearance of tissues and organs. Vegetative and generative organs, depending on the living conditions of plants, have different shapes, colors, and structures. Carrots develop a root crop, and ivy develops roots - trailers. There are changes leading to a decrease in the level of organization of organisms.

  1. Establish a correspondence between examples and evolutionary processes.
  1. What aromorphoses allowed the ancient amphibians to explore the land?
  2. Establish the chronological sequence of the appearance on Earth of the main groups of animals (flatworms, arthropods, annelids, protozoa, coelenterates).
  3. Establishing in what chronological sequence the main groups of animals appeared (animal-toothed lizards, mollusks, reptiles, annelids, stegocephals).
  4. Which of the factors of human evolution has a social nature? (articulate speech, variability, natural selection, heredity).
  5. Under the influence of biological factors of evolution, people have formed (speech and consciousness, abstract thinking and emotions, labor activity and rituals, curves of the spine).
  6. In the formation of what fundamental abilities of a person as a biological species, along with biological, did social factors matter? (creating tools, perceiving the volume of space, capturing sounds of different frequencies, maintaining body balance).
  7. What embryological evidence of evolution confirms the relationship of man with other vertebrates?

Development of the caudal region in the embryo

Similarities between animal and human fossils

Bookmark at the embryo of the gill slits

Lack of continuous hairline

The laying of the heart in the embryo in the form of a tube with pulsating walls

Birth of children with 46 chromosomes

  1. Man, unlike vertebrates

Has five parts of the brain

Forms various natural populations

Has a second signal system

Can create an artificial habitat

Has the first alarm system

Can create and use tools of labor

  1. Establish a correspondence between the structural features of the human body and the type of comparative anatomical evidence of its evolution.
  1. Give at least three progressive biological features of man, which he acquired in the process of long evolution.
  2. Establish a sequence that reflects the position of Homo sapiens species in the system, starting with the smallest category (human family, mammal class, primate order, chordate type, human genus, Homo sapiens species).

Reference material on general biology for the exam . Theme "Evolution"

1. The first evolutionary theory was created J.B. Lamarck. He erroneously considered the direct influence of the environment to be the main factor in evolution; inheritance of traits acquired by organisms under the influence of the environment. He considered the driving force of evolution to be "the desire of organisms for progress."

Lamarck introduced the division of animals into vertebrates and invertebrates. The link between them is lancelet.

2. He laid the foundations of scientific systematics C. Linnaeus. He introduced the binomial (double) name of the species (Nr .: Forest apple tree). But the systematics of Linnaeus was artificial. Modern taxonomy takes into account the signs of the relationship of species and therefore is called natural.

3. Evidence of evolution: 1) Paleontological (fossils) 2) Embryological: Carl Baer formulated germ law . Haeckel opened biogenetic law : ontogeny is a brief repetition of phylogeny. 3) Comparative anatomical (rudiments, atavisms, homologous and similar organs). Atavisms - a tailed man, a hairy man, many nipples. Rudiments - the third century of man, appendix.

4.Malthus proved that species reproduce exponentially, and the conditions for their existence are only arithmetic. (This gives rise to the struggle for existence).

5.Ch.Darwin- foundation builder modern theory of evolution organic world. He opened drivers of evolution, formulated the principle of divergence of signs (divergence).

Drivers of evolution: hereditary variability (mutations), struggle for existence (intra-, interspecific and with adverse environmental conditions), natural selection (driving, stabilizing, disruptive), isolation (ecological, geographical), migrations, population waves, gene drift.

Natural selection is the driving force behind evolution. .

By "struggle for existence" Darwin understood all kinds of relationships between organisms, as well as between organisms and environmental conditions.

Mismatch between the possibility of a species for unlimited reproduction and limited resources - main reason struggle for existence. The intraspecific struggle is the most intense, since individuals of the same species have the same needs.

Evolutionary changes occurring at the population, intraspecific level are called microevolution. As a result of microevolution, new species are formed (speciation).

Forms of speciation: geographical and ecological.

Macroevolution - supraspecific evolution, leads to the formation of new genera, families, etc.

Macroevolution, like microevolution, is divergent in nature.

The phylogenetic series of horses was recreated by Kovalevsky.

The discovery and study of the lancelet proved the origin of vertebrates from invertebrates, their relationship.

Evolution results: species diversity, speciation, adaptability .

Genetic drift is a change in the frequency of a gene in a population under the influence of random causes.

Fluctuations in the number of individuals that make up a population are called population waves.

As a result of population waves, rare genes can become frequent, or they can disappear.

Fitness, species diversity, speciation are the result of the interaction of the driving forces of evolution. Any fixture it is the result of the driving forces of evolution (hereditary variation, struggle for existence, natural selection, isolation).

Mimicry is the imitation of a less protected organism of one species by a more protected organism of another species. (Ex. some types of flies look like wasps)

All adaptations are relative, i.e. they help the organism to survive only in given specific conditions.

The gene pool is the totality of all genes contained in a population or species.

The larger the offspring and the more often the change of generations occurs, the better the species adapts to changing environmental conditions.

6. Relatively isolated groups of individuals of the same species are called populations.

The existence of a species in the form of populations allows the species to adapt to life in different conditions of existence.

A population is the smallest subdivision of a species that changes over time. Therefore, the population is the elementary unit of evolution. Darwin erroneously considered the individual to be the elementary unit of evolution.

A population is simultaneously a unit of evolution, a structural unit of a species, and a unit of an ecosystem.

The idea of ​​saturation of populations with recessive mutations was first expressed by S.S. Chetverikov.

7.View criteria. There is no absolute criterion. The belonging of individuals to a particular species is determined by a set of criteria (morphological, physiological, genetic, historical, geographical, ecological). Food refers to the ecological criterion.

8.biological progress characterized by an expansion of the range, an increase in the number of populations and individuals of the species. Biological progress can be achieved by all three main directions of evolution: aromorphosis, idioadaptation and general degeneration.

biological regression characterized by a narrowing of the range, a decrease in the number of individuals and populations.

Aromorphoses- major evolutionary changes that lead to a general rise in the level of organization, increase the intensity of life. (Nr .: The appearance for the first time in the process of evolution of live birth, constant body temperature, pulmonary respiration; in plants, the appearance of a flower, seed, vascular system, etc.) Through aromorphosis, large systematic categories arise in the process of evolution, with a rank above the family.

Idioadaptation- small evolutionary changes that increase the adaptability of organisms to certain environmental conditions, but are not accompanied by a change in the main features of the organization. (Nr. protective coloration of animals, adaptations for seed dispersal). Species, genera, families in the process of evolution arise through idioadaptation.

9.similar are called organs that have different origins, but perform same functions. (This is the result of convergence - the convergence of features). Nr.: bird wings and insect wings.

Homologous organs have the same origin, but perform different functions. (This is the result of divergence - divergence of features). Nr .: human hand, bird wings, burrowing limbs of a mole, seal flippers.

10. What group of proofs of evolution do atavisms and rudiments belong to? (embryonic, paleontological, comparative anatomical, biogeographic)

The first task corresponds to the first section in the codifier, which can be easily found on the FIPI website.

The section is called “Biology as a science. Methods of scientific knowledge”. What does this mean? There are no specifics here, so, in fact, it can include anything.

In the codifier, you can find a list of content elements that are checked for the exam. That is, everything you need to know to successfully complete the task is listed there. For correct execution, you can get 1 point.

We present them below for your reference:

  1. Biology as a science, its achievements, methods of cognition of living nature.
  2. The role of biology in the formation of the modern natural-science picture of the world.
  3. Level organization and evolution. The main levels of organization of living nature: cellular, organismic, population-species, biogeocenotic, biospheric.
  4. Biological systems. General features of biological systems: cellular structure, features chemical composition, metabolism and energy transformations, homeostasis, irritability, movement, growth and development, reproduction, evolution.

It looks very complicated and incomprehensible, however, in the process of preparation, you will still get acquainted with all these topics, they do not need to be taught for a separate task.

Analysis of typical tasks No. 1 USE in biology

After reviewing all the tasks offered by the open bank, we can distinguish two classifications of tasks for ourselves: according to the thematic section and according to the form of the question.

By subject area

Arranged in order from largest to smallest, we get:

  • Botany
  • human anatomy
  • Cytology
  • General biology
  • Genetics
  • Evolution

Let's look at examples of tasks for each section.

Botany

Consider the proposed diagram of the structure of the organs of a flowering plant. Write in the answer the missing term, indicated in the diagram with a question mark.

The stem, buds and leaves together make up the ground part of the plant - the shoot.

Answer: escape.

human anatomy

Consider the proposed scheme of the structure of the skeleton of the upper limb. Write in the answer the missing term, indicated in the diagram with a question mark.

The arm belongs to the free upper limb. If you don’t go into details with the bones that make it up yet, then you just need to remember the three sections: shoulder, forearm, hand.

The shoulder begins at the shoulder joint and ends at the elbow joint.

The forearm, respectively, should end with the elbow, and start from the wrist inclusive.

Brush-bones that make up the palm and phalanges of the fingers.

Answer: shoulder.

Cytology

First, you need to familiarize yourself with the concept of "cytology" in order to understand what is at stake.

Cytology is a branch of biology that studies living cells, their organelles, their structure, functioning, processes of cell reproduction, aging and death. The terms cell biology, cell biology are also used.

The word "cytology" includes two roots from Greek: "cytos" - cell, "logos" - science, as in biology - "bio" - living, "logos" - science. Knowing the roots, you can easily assemble a definition.

Consider the proposed classification scheme for organelles. Write in the answer the missing term, indicated by a question mark in the diagram.

From this diagram, it becomes clear that organelles are divided into three types according to the number of membranes. Here, only one window is allocated for each type, but this does not mean that only one organoid corresponds to each type. In addition, plant and animal cells have differences in cell structure.

Plants, unlike animals, have:

  • Cellulose cell wall
  • Chloroplasts essential for photosynthesis
  • Large digestive vacuole. The older the cell, the larger the vacuoles

According to the number of membranes, organelles are divided into:

  • Single-membrane organelles: endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes.
  • Two-membrane organelles: nucleus, mitochondria, plastids (leukoplasts, chloroplasts, chromoplasts).
  • Non-membrane organelles: ribosomes, centrioles, nucleolus.

In the diagram, the question is about two-membrane organelles. We know that mitochondria and plastids are two-membrane. We argue: there is only one pass, and there are two options. It's not just like that. You need to read the question carefully. There are two types of cells, but we are not told which one we are talking about, so the answer must be universal. Plastids are characteristic only of plant cells, therefore, mitochondria remain.

Answer: mitochondria, or mitochondrion.

(Both options are listed in the open bank)

Genetics

Again, let's look at the definition:

Genetics is the science of the laws of heredity and variability.

Let's break the definition into definitions:

Heredity - The totality of the natural properties of an organism received from parents, predecessors.

Variability - a variety of characters among representatives of a given species, as well as the property of offspring to acquire differences from parental forms.

Consider the proposed classification scheme for the types of variability. Write in the answer the missing term, indicated in the diagram with a question mark.

Since the property of acquiring differences from parental forms is embedded in the concept of variability, this gives us the term "heredity". A healthy person has 46 chromosomes. 23 from mom, 23 from dad. This means that the child is a combination of traits acquired from parents, moreover, mom and dad also carry the traits of their parents in their genetic code. In the course of permutations, some appear in the offspring, and some can simply be transferred to the genome. Those that appear are dominant, and those that are simply registered in the genome are recessive. Such variability does not bring major changes against the background of the whole species.

Answer: combinative.

Evolution

Evolution in biology is the irreversible historical development of living nature.

It is aimed at the survival of the species. No need to think that evolution is just a complication of the organism, some species have gone down the path of degeneration, that is, simplification, in order to survive.

Biological regression obviously has no options. Those who could not adapt to changing environmental conditions came to regression, which means they died out. Biologists know that it is not the fittest who survive, but the fittest.

Biological progress has three paths, let's start simple:

Adaptation is the main goal. In another way, "adapt" can be said to "adapt".

The next way is idioadaptation.

Idioadaptation is the acquisition of useful traits for life.

Or scientifically: Idioadaptation is the direction of evolution, which consists in the acquisition of new features while maintaining the level of organization of ancestral forms.

Everyone knows what an anteater looks like. He has an elongated muzzle, and all this is necessary in order to get his food, small insects. Such a change in the shape of the muzzle did not make fundamental changes in the life of anteaters, but it became more convenient for them to eat than from ancestors with a less elongated muzzle.

Aromorphosis - the emergence in the course of evolution of signs that significantly increase the level of organization of living organisms.

For example, the emergence of angiosperms has significantly increased survival rates.

Answer: idioadaptation.

So, we have analyzed one example of tasks from different sections asked in the first task.

Second classification: according to form question asked. Although there are schemes everywhere in the first task, the question can still be posed in different ways.

Question Forms

1. Missing term in the scheme

You just need to enter the missing term in the diagram, as in the tasks above. Most of these questions.

Consider the proposed scheme of evolution directions. Write in the answer the missing term, indicated by a question mark in the diagram.

We discussed this option above, so we write the answer right away.

Answer: idioadaptation.

2. Answer the question from the chart

The scheme is complete, based on your knowledge, you need to answer the question according to the scheme.

Look at the picture for examples of chromosomal mutations. Under the number 3, it indicates a chromosomal rearrangement ... (write down the term in your answer)

There are several types of chromosome rearrangements that you need to know:

Duplication is a type of chromosomal rearrangement in which a portion of a chromosome is doubled.

Deletions are the loss of a portion of a chromosome.

Inversion - a change in the structure of the chromosome, caused by a 180 ° turn of one of its internal sections.

Translocation is the transfer of a part of a chromosome to another.

The third figure clearly shows that there are more sections of chromosomes. The first four sections of the chromosome doubled, they became 9, instead of 5, as it was. This means that a duplication of a part of the chromosome has occurred.

Answer: duplication.

3. Answer to the question about the circuit part

The scheme is complete, but there is a question regarding some part of it:

Consider the proposed scheme for the reaction between amino acids. In response, write down the concept denoting the name of the chemical bond marked in the diagram with a question mark.

This diagram depicts the reaction between two amino acids, which is known from the question. There are peptide bonds between them. You will get to know them in more detail when studying DNA and RNA.

A peptide bond is a chemical bond that occurs between two molecules as a result of a condensation reaction between the carboxyl group (-COOH) of one molecule and the amino group (-NH2) of another molecule, with the release of one molecule of water (H2O).

Answer: peptide peptide bond.

According to FIPI, the first task is basic, so it is not particularly difficult for a graduate. It covers many topics, but is rather superficial. After studying all the topics, it is better to look at all the available schemes for this assignment, since the answer is not always obvious. And don't forget to read the question carefully, it's not always the same.

evolutionary doctrine

Evolutionary doctrine (theory of evolution)- a science that studies the historical development of life: causes, patterns and mechanisms. Distinguish between micro and macro evolution.

microevolution- evolutionary processes at the population level, leading to the formation of new species.

macroevolution- evolution of supraspecific taxa, as a result of which larger systematic groups are formed. They are based on the same principles and mechanisms.

Development of evolutionary ideas

Heraclitus, Empidocles, Democritus, Lucretius, Hippocrates, Aristotle and other ancient philosophers formulated the first ideas about the development of wildlife.
Carl Linnaeus believed in the creation of nature by God and the constancy of species, but allowed the possibility of the emergence of new species by crossing or under the influence of environmental conditions. In the book “The System of Nature”, K. Linnaeus substantiated the species as a universal unit and the main form of existence of the living; he assigned a double designation to each species of animals and plants, where the noun is the name of the genus, the adjective is the name of the species (for example, Homo sapiens); described a huge number of plants and animals; developed the basic principles of taxonomy of plants and animals and created their first classification.
Jean Baptiste Lamarck created the first holistic evolutionary doctrine. In the work "Philosophy of Zoology" (1809), he singled out the main direction of the evolutionary process - the gradual complication of organization from lower to higher forms. He also developed a hypothesis about the natural origin of man from ape-like ancestors who switched to a terrestrial way of life. Lamarck considered the striving for perfection of organisms as the driving force behind evolution and claimed the inheritance of acquired traits. That is, the organs necessary in the new conditions develop as a result of exercise (the neck of a giraffe), and unnecessary organs atrophy due to lack of exercise (the eyes of a mole). However, Lamarck was unable to reveal the mechanisms of the evolutionary process. His hypothesis about the inheritance of acquired traits turned out to be untenable, and his statement about the internal desire of organisms for improvement was unscientific.
Charles Darwin created an evolutionary theory based on the concepts of the struggle for existence and natural selection. The prerequisites for the emergence of the teachings of Charles Darwin were the following: the accumulation by that time of rich material on paleontology, geography, geology, and biology; selection development; the successes of systematics; the emergence of cell theory; own observations of the scientist during the round-the-world voyage on the Beagle ship. Ch. Darwin outlined his evolutionary ideas in a number of works: “The Origin of Species through Natural Selection”, “Change of Domestic Animals and Cultivated Plants Under the Influence of Domestication”, “The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection”, etc.

Darwin's teaching boils down to this:

  • each individual of a particular species has individuality (variability);
  • personality traits (although not all) can be inherited (heredity);
  • individuals produce more offspring than they survive to puberty and the beginning of reproduction, that is, in nature there is a struggle for existence;
  • the advantage in the struggle for existence remains with the fittest individuals, who are more likely to leave behind offspring (natural selection);
  • as a result of natural selection, there is a gradual complication of the levels of organization of life and the emergence of species.

Factors of evolution according to Ch. Darwin- This

  • heredity,
  • variability,
  • struggle for existence,
  • natural selection.


Heredity - the ability of organisms to transmit their characteristics from generation to generation (features of structure, development, functions).
Variability - the ability of organisms to acquire new traits.
Struggle for existence - the whole complex of relationships between organisms and environmental conditions: with inanimate nature (abiotic factors) and with other organisms (biotic factors). The struggle for existence is not a "struggle" in the truest sense of the word, in fact it is a survival strategy and a way of existence of an organism. Distinguish between intraspecific struggle, interspecific struggle and struggle with adverse environmental factors. Intraspecific struggle- struggle between individuals of the same population. It is always very stressful, as individuals of the same species need the same resources. Interspecies struggle- struggle between individuals of populations different types. Occurs when species compete for the same resources, or when they are linked in predator-prey relationships. Struggle with unfavorable abiotic environmental factors especially manifested in the deterioration of environmental conditions; enhances intraspecific struggle. In the struggle for existence, individuals most adapted to given living conditions are identified. The struggle for existence leads to natural selection.
Natural selection- a process, as a result of which, predominantly individuals with hereditary changes that are useful under given conditions, survive and leave behind offspring.

All biological and many other natural sciences were rebuilt on the basis of Darwinism.
At present, the most widely accepted is synthetic theory of evolution (STE). Comparative characteristics of the main provisions of the evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin and STE are given in the table.

Comparative characteristics of the main provisions of the evolutionary teachings of Ch. Darwin and the synthetic theory of evolution (STE)

signs The evolutionary theory of Ch. Darwin Synthetic Theory of Evolution (STE)
Main results of evolution 1) Increasing the adaptability of organisms to environmental conditions; 2) increasing the level of organization of living beings; 3) increase in the diversity of organisms
Evolution unit View population
Factors of evolution Heredity, variability, struggle for existence, natural selection Mutational and combinative variability, population waves and genetic drift, isolation, natural selection
driving factor Natural selection
Interpretation of the term natural selection Survival of the fittest and death of the less fit Selective reproduction of genotypes
Forms of natural selection Driving (and sexual as its variety) Driving, stabilizing, disruptive

The emergence of devices. Each adaptation is developed on the basis of hereditary variability in the process of struggle for existence and selection in a number of generations. Natural selection favors only expedient adaptations that help an organism survive and reproduce.
The adaptability of organisms to the environment is not absolute, but relative, since environmental conditions can change. Many facts serve as proof of this. For example, fish are perfectly adapted to aquatic habitats, but all these adaptations are completely unsuitable for other habitats. Night butterflies collect nectar from light flowers, clearly visible at night, but often fly into the fire and die.

Elementary Factors of Evolution- factors that change the frequency of alleles and genotypes in the population (the genetic structure of the population).

There are several main elementary factors of evolution:
mutation process;
population waves and genetic drift;
insulation;
natural selection.

Mutational and combinative variability.

mutation process leads to the emergence of new alleles (or genes) and their combinations as a result of mutations. As a result of a mutation, a gene can move from one allelic state to another (A → a) or change the gene in general (A → C). The mutation process, due to the randomness of mutations, does not have a direction and, without the participation of other evolutionary factors, cannot direct the change in the natural population. It only supplies the elementary evolutionary material for natural selection. Recessive mutations in the heterozygous state constitute a hidden reserve of variability, which can be used by natural selection when the conditions of existence change.
Combination variability occurs as a result of the formation in the offspring of new combinations of already existing genes inherited from parents. The sources of combinative variability are chromosome crossing (recombination), random segregation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis, and random combination of gametes during fertilization.

Population waves and genetic drift.

population waves(waves of life) - periodic and non-periodic fluctuations in the population size, both upward and downward. The causes of population waves can be periodic changes in environmental environmental factors (seasonal fluctuations in temperature, humidity, etc.), non-periodic changes (natural disasters), settlement of new territories by the species (accompanied by a sharp increase in numbers).
Population waves act as an evolutionary factor in small populations where gene drift is possible. Gene drift- random non-directional change in the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in populations. In small populations, the action of random processes leads to noticeable consequences. If the population is small in size, then as a result of random events, some individuals, regardless of their genetic constitution, may or may not leave offspring, as a result of which the frequencies of some alleles may change dramatically over one or several generations. Thus, with a sharp reduction in the population size (for example, due to seasonal fluctuations, a reduction in food resources, a fire, etc.), rare genotypes may be among the few remaining individuals. If in the future the number is restored due to these individuals, then this will lead to a random change in the frequencies of alleles in the gene pool of the population. Thus, population waves are the supplier of evolutionary material.
Insulation due to the emergence of various factors that prevent free crossing. Between the formed populations, the exchange of genetic information ceases, as a result of which the initial differences in the gene pools of these populations increase and become fixed. Isolated populations can undergo various evolutionary changes, gradually turning into different species.
Distinguish between spatial and biological isolation. Spatial (geographical) isolation associated with geographical obstacles (water barriers, mountains, deserts, etc.), and for sedentary populations and simply with great distances. biological isolation due to the impossibility of mating and fertilization (due to a change in the timing of reproduction, structure or other factors that prevent crossing), the death of zygotes (due to biochemical differences in gametes), the sterility of the offspring (as a result of impaired chromosome conjugation during gametogenesis).
The evolutionary significance of isolation is that it perpetuates and reinforces genetic differences between populations.
Natural selection. Changes in the frequencies of genes and genotypes caused by the factors of evolution discussed above are of a random, non-directional nature. The guiding factor of evolution is natural selection.

Natural selection- the process, as a result of which predominantly individuals with properties useful to the population survive and leave behind offspring.

Selection operates in populations; its objects are the phenotypes of individual individuals. However, selection by phenotypes is a selection of genotypes, since not traits, but genes are transmitted to offspring. As a result, in the population there is an increase in the relative number of individuals with a certain property or quality. Thus, natural selection is a process of differential (selective) reproduction of genotypes.
Not only properties that increase the likelihood of leaving offspring are subjected to selection, but also traits that are not directly related to reproduction. In a number of cases, selection can be aimed at creating mutual adaptations of species to each other (flowers of plants and insects visiting them). Also, signs can be created that are harmful to an individual, but ensure the survival of the species as a whole (a stinging bee dies, but attacking the enemy, it saves the family). On the whole, selection plays a creative role in nature, since from undirected hereditary changes those are fixed that can lead to the formation of new groups of individuals that are more perfect in the given conditions of existence.
There are three main forms of natural selection: stabilizing, moving and tearing (disruptive) (table).

Forms of natural selection

Form Characteristic Examples
stabilizing Aimed at the preservation of mutations leading to less variability in the average value of the trait. It operates under relatively constant environmental conditions, that is, as long as the conditions that led to the formation of a particular trait or property persist. Preservation in insect pollinated plants of the size and shape of the flower, since the flowers must correspond to the size of the body of the pollinating insect. Conservation of relic species.
Moving It is aimed at preserving mutations that change the average value of the trait. Occurs when environmental conditions change. The individuals of the population have some differences in genotype and phenotype, and with a long-term change in the external environment, a part of the individuals of the species with some deviations from the average norm may gain an advantage in life and reproduction. The variation curve shifts in the direction of adaptation to new conditions of existence. The emergence of resistance to pesticides in insects and rodents, in microorganisms - to antibiotics. Darkening of the color of the birch moth (butterfly) in the developed industrial regions of England (industrial melanism). In these areas, the bark of trees becomes dark due to the disappearance of lichens sensitive to atmospheric pollution, and dark butterflies are less visible on tree trunks.
Tearing (disruptive) Aimed at the preservation of mutations leading to the greatest deviation from the average value of the trait. Disruptive selection is manifested in the event that environmental conditions change in such a way that individuals with extreme deviations from the average norm acquire an advantage. As a result of tearing selection, polymorphism of the population is formed, that is, the presence of several groups that differ in some way. With frequent strong winds, insects with either well-developed wings or rudimentary ones persist on oceanic islands.

A Brief History of the Evolution of the Organic World

The age of the Earth is about 4.6 billion years. Life on Earth originated in the ocean more than 3.5 billion years ago.
Short story development of the organic world is presented in the table. The phylogeny of the main groups of organisms is shown in the figure.
The history of the development of life on Earth is studied by the fossil remains of organisms or traces of their vital activity. They are found in rocks of different ages.
The geochronological scale of the Earth's history is divided into eras and periods.

Geochronological scale and the history of the development of living organisms

Era, age (in million years) Period, duration (in million years) Animal world plant world The most important aromorphoses
Cenozoic, 62–70 Anthropogen, 1.5 Modern animal world. Evolution and domination of man Modern vegetable world Intensive development of the cerebral cortex; upright posture
Neogene, 23.0 Paleogene, 41±2 Mammals, birds, insects dominate. The first primates appear (lemurs, tarsiers), later parapithecus and dryopithecus. Many groups of reptiles, cephalopods disappear Flowering plants, especially herbaceous ones, are widely distributed; the flora of gymnosperms is reduced
Mesozoic, 240 Chalk, 70 Dominated bony fish, first birds, small mammals; placental mammals and modern birds appear and spread; giant reptiles die out Angiosperms appear and begin to dominate; ferns and gymnosperms are reduced Emergence of flower and fruit. The appearance of the uterus
Yura, 60 Giant reptiles, bony fish, insects, and cephalopods predominate; Archeopteryx appears; ancient cartilaginous fish die out Modern gymnosperms dominate; ancient gymnosperms die out
Triassic, 35±5 Amphibians, cephalopods, herbivorous and predatory reptiles predominate; bony fish, oviparous and marsupial mammals appear Ancient gymnosperms predominate; modern gymnosperms appear; seed ferns are dying out The appearance of a four-chambered heart; complete separation of arterial and venous blood flow; the appearance of warm-bloodedness; appearance of mammary glands
Paleozoic, 570
Perm, 50±10 Marine invertebrates, sharks dominate; reptiles and insects develop rapidly; there are animal-toothed and herbivorous reptiles; stegocephalians and trilobites are dying out Rich flora of seed and herbaceous ferns; ancient gymnosperms appear; tree-like horsetails, club mosses and ferns die out Pollen tube and seed formation
Carbon, 65±10 Amphibians, mollusks, sharks, lungfish dominate; winged forms of insects, spiders, scorpions appear and develop rapidly; the first reptiles appear; trilobites and stegocephals are noticeably reduced Abundance of tree-like ferns forming "carboniferous forests"; seed ferns appear; psilophytes disappear The appearance of internal fertilization; the appearance of dense egg shells; keratinization of the skin
Devon 55 Armored, molluscs, trilobites, corals prevail; lobe-finned, lungfish and ray-finned fish, stegocephals appear Rich flora of psilophytes; mosses, ferns, mushrooms appear The dismemberment of the body of plants into organs; transformation of fins into terrestrial limbs; the emergence of respiratory organs
Silur, 35 Rich fauna of trilobites, molluscs, crustaceans, corals; armored fish appear, the first terrestrial invertebrates (centipedes, scorpions, wingless insects) Abundance of algae; plants come to land - psilophytes appear Differentiation of the plant body into tissues; division of the animal body into sections; formation of jaws and limb girdles in vertebrates
Ordovician, 55±10 Cambrian, 80±20 Sponges, coelenterates, worms, echinoderms, trilobites predominate; jawless vertebrates (scutes), molluscs appear Prosperity of all departments of algae
Proterozoic, 2600 Protozoa are widespread; all types of invertebrates, echinoderms appear; primary chordates appear - subtype Cranial Blue-green and green algae, bacteria are widespread; red algae appear The emergence of bilateral symmetry
Archeyskaya, 3500 The emergence of life: prokaryotes (bacteria, blue-green algae), eukaryotes (protozoa), primitive multicellular organisms The emergence of photosynthesis; the appearance of aerobic respiration; the emergence of eukaryotic cells; the appearance of the sexual process; emergence of multicellularity

Presentation description Evolution of the organic world. Getting ready for the exam Development by slides

Carl Linnaeus Proponent of creationism Introduced the concept of "species" Introduced binary nomenclature. He was the first to systematize the animal and plant world. The taxonomy of Linnaeus was artificial - that is, it was based on external similarity, and not on closely related relationships (classification of flowering plants by the number of stamens). Determined the place of man in the animal world. Classified animals in 3 steps. He laid the foundation for the structural features of the heart and blood.

Jean Baptiste Lamarck Was a supporter of the theory of spontaneous generation of life. Introduced the term biology Introduced the concept of "gradation" - a gradual but steady increase in the organization of living beings - from the simplest to the most perfect (6 gradations). He proposed the concept of transformism - the variability of species. Created the first evolutionary theory

Laws of Lamarck "Philosophy of Zoology" "The law of exercise and non-exercise of organs" "Prolonged use of any organ strengthens this organ little by little, develops and increases it, while the constant disuse of this or that organ gradually weakens it, continuously reduces its abilities and finally causes it to disappear.” "The law of inheritance of acquired traits" "Everything that nature has forced individuals to acquire or lose under the influence of conditions - all this nature preserves through reproduction in new individuals" "The law of expediency" (direct adaptation) The historical development of organisms is not accidental, but natural takes place in the direction of gradual and steady improvement, raising the overall level of the organization. Lamarck considered the driving force of gradations to be “nature's desire for progress”, inherent in all organisms and laid down in them by the Creator. . .

Prerequisites for Darwin's teachings: 1. Socio-economic: the development of capitalism in England, the outflow of the rural population, the need to increase the productivity of agricultural plants and animals; 2. Scientific: the theory of Lyell, who spoke about the variability of the earth's surface, refuted Cuvier's theory (the theory of catastrophes); ; 3. The accumulation of a large number of disparate scientific facts: the Schwann-Schleiden theory, paleontological data. The main provisions of Darwin's teachings: 1. Fundamentals of the origin of cultivated plants and domestic animals: all the variety of breeds and varieties bred by man from one or a small number of wild ancestors 2. The doctrine of variability: certain (modification) - under the influence of environmental factors, indeterminate (mutational) , correlative - a change in one organ entails a change in others, compensatory - with the development of some organs and functions, it occurs with the suppression of others. 3. The doctrine of artificial selection (unconscious and methodical artificial selection). 4. Principles of artificial selection: 1. heredity, variability, 2. selection and reproduction of more perfect individuals, 3. accumulation of positive changes in a number of generations. 5. Natural selection (depends on reproduction and the struggle for existence) 6. Theory of the struggle for existence (interspecific, intraspecific, struggle with environmental factors)

Causes Consequences Results 1. Intensity of reproduction; 2. Limited natural resources; 3. Hereditary variability. The struggle for existence, leading to natural selection. 1. The emergence of adaptability to the environment; 2. Formation of new species. The logical structure of Darwin's evolutionary theory: Darwin's merit: 1. Explained the organic expediency of living organisms 2. Formulated the main driving forces of evolution: . Natural selection. Struggle for existence. Heredity and variability 3. Provided evidence of human animal origin

Initial positions of Linnaeus Lamarck Darwin The existence of a species The presence of adaptations in an organism The variability of organisms The driving forces of evolution The emergence of new species Characteristics of the views of biologists on wildlife

Driving Forces of Evolution Evolution is an irreversible, directed process of the historical development of organisms; aims to increase the diversity of species by constantly adapting to changing environmental conditions. Driving forces (factors) of evolution: 1) The struggle for existence is the totality of relationships between organisms and environmental conditions. 2) Natural selection is the predominant survival and reproduction of individuals that are superior to others in hereditarily determined adaptive traits. 3) Heredity - the property of living organisms to show signs of parental forms. 4) Variability - the property of living organisms to show signs that are different from their parent Evolution as a reality: Signs and evidence

Struggle for existence Forms of struggle a brief description of The result of the struggle Examples Interspecific Exists between individuals of different species Either the displacement of one of the species occurs, or the adaptation of species to different conditions within a single area, or their territorial separation. Displacement by the stinging European bee of the local Australian bee; The struggle for food between species of the same genus - gray and black rats; Eating prey by predators Intraspecific All types of struggle for existence leading to the selective destruction or elimination from reproduction of individual individuals within one species Of the many individuals of each species born, only those that are best adapted to the conditions that exist in the population at any given moment survive and reproduce. time. Tournament fights of males for the right to own a harem; In a coniferous forest of the same age, some trees spread their crowns wide and catch more light, their roots penetrate deeper and take out water and nutrients, causing damage to the weak. With unfavorable environmental factors Survival of certain organisms in changing environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, salinity, illumination, composition of air, soil, water, etc.). Survival in extreme or changed conditions of the fittest forms. Leaf reduction and formation of long roots in desert plants; Catching insects from marsh plants; Huge seed productivity and ability for vegetative reproduction in exterminated species (weeds) In winter, animals change color, coat density, hibernate

Comparison parameters Driving selection Stabilizing selection Disruptive selection 1. Environmental conditions Constantly changing Does not change Environmental conditions are different in different habitats 2. The nature of the phenotype Adaptive traits shift in a certain direction in a number of generations Phenotypic traits do not change in generations and are most optimal in given environmental conditions Inside Several distinctly different phenotypes arise in the population 3. Direction of selection A shift in the reaction norm occurs Average values ​​of traits are fixed Extreme values ​​of traits are fixed 4. The result of selection Increases adaptability to changing environmental conditions Leads to species uniformity Leads to the emergence of new subspecies 5. Significance for evolutionary progress Plays a decisive role in the adaptation of living organisms to changing environmental conditions, ensures the wide distribution of life, its penetration into various ecological niches Actively forms genetic mechanisms that both ensure the stable development of organisms, the formation of optimal phenotypes based on various genotypes, the stable functioning of organisms in the conditions familiar to the species. In certain situations, it can lead to the formation of ecologically isolated races within the species and then to speciation 6. Examples Due to atmospheric pollution, tree trunks have become darker, light butterflies for camouflage from birds also began to take on a dark color Survival of birds with medium wing size and death of birds with large or small wings Formation of seasonal races in some weeds (radiation rattle)

Schemes of action of various forms of natural selection: 1 - stabilizing, 2 - driving, 3 - disruptive

Comparative characteristics of the types of variability Characteristic for comparison Non-hereditary variability Hereditary variability Influence on the genotype Does not change Changes Influence on the phenotype Changes, but not always high impact evolutionary process Influenced indirectly Material for natural selection

Laboratory work No. 1 Variation series - a series of variability of a given trait Number of leaves Variation curve - a graphical expression of the variability of a trait, reflecting both the range of variations and the frequency of occurrence of individual variants.

1. Paleontological evidence of evolution: Fossils of a transitional form (Archaeopteryx) Fossils of extinct organisms Phylogenetic series (horse limbs) 2. Embryological evidence of evolution: Law of germline similarity (Baer's law) ) repeats to a certain extent the forms passed by its ancestors or its species (phylogenesis)

3. Comparative anatomical evidence of evolution: Analogues - organs that have a different origin, but the same functions. Homologues are organs that have a common origin but different functions. Rudiments are organs that have lost their significance in the course of evolution (wisdom teeth, appendix). Atavisms are signs characteristic of ancestral forms (tail, polynipple, hairiness). 4. Biogeographic evidence of evolution: Relic forms - organisms that have survived the remains of floras and faunas of past eras (shark). Cosmopolitans are representatives of a species of animals or plants distributed throughout the Earth (rotifers, tardigrades, freshwater crustaceans, among plants, cereals and Compositae). Endemic - biological taxa, whose representatives live in a relatively limited range (kangaroos).

Adaptations as a result of evolution № Categories, Types Their characteristics, examples 1 Organism Viability (normally develops in a typical environment), competitiveness (can withstand competition with other organisms), fertility (ability to reproduce normally A Morphological features of the body structure (cuticle, needles) Protective coloration Makes organisms less visible against the background of the environment (white hare in winter) Camouflage Body shape and color merge with the environment (stick insects) Mimicry Assimilation of a less protected organism to a more protected other species (cockroach-ladybug) Warning coloration Birds remember the color of inedible ladybug B physiological Constant body temperature in warm-blooded animals C Biological Photosynthesis, synthesis of proteins, poisons D Behavioral (ethological) Foraging, mating behavior 2 Species These are morphological and behavioral signs of individuals and features of the organization of the species. Correspondence in the structure of the genital organs of males and females, the association of predators in flocks for food

A species is a collection of individuals that are similar in morphological properties and have a common origin. Occupying a certain range, capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. The main feature of the species is the relative stability of its gene pool, which is maintained by the reproductive isolation of individuals from other species.

Ability to interbreed Individuals of the same species freely interbreed and produce fertile offspring Morphological similarity of external and internal structure individuals of the same species Physiological Similarity of vital processes (metabolism, irritability, reproduction) in individuals of the same species Biochemical Similarity of the chemical composition (proteins, nucleic acids, etc.) and biochemical reactions in individuals of the same species Genetic Similarity of karyotypes and the order of nucleotides in DNA molecules of individuals of the same species species Geographic Individuals of the same species occupy a similar range Ecological Each species occupies a certain ecological niche Ethological Similar behavior of individuals of the same species Basic The ability of individuals of the same species to interbreed and produce fertile offspring. View criteria

Laboratory work No. 2 Great tit (Parus major), a bird of the tit family (Paridae) of the passerine order. The body length is on average 15 cm, weighs 20 g. The color combinations are black, green, white, blue and yellow. Distributed in Europe, Asia (excluding the north) and in northwestern Africa. Sedentary or nomadic bird. Keeps in deciduous and mixed forests, parks, shrubs, riverside thickets, in the desert - in saxaul forests. Nests are usually arranged in hollows. Breeds in late March - early April. Clutch contains 9-13 eggs. The female incubates for 13 days. 2 clutches per year. It feeds mainly on insects. A pair of birds during the feeding period of chicks brings them up to 1000 insects a day. Very useful, deserve protection and attraction.

Stinging nettle is a perennial herbaceous plant nettle families 60-170 cm high with an erect, tetrahedral, non-branching stem, opposite ovate-lanceolate large-toothed leaves and a long, creeping, branched cord-like rhizome with thin roots at the nodes. Leaves 8-17 cm long, 2-8 cm wide, petiolate, gradually tapering towards the apex and long pointed, at the base mostly heart-shaped or, less often, rounded, coarsely serrate-toothed, with curved teeth, dark green. Nettle blooms from June to September, the seeds ripen in August-October. Nettle grows as a weed along the banks of rivers and streams, ravines, clearings, along forest edges, in bushes, in shady forests, near houses and roads, in gardens throughout Ukraine, Belarus and the European part of Russia, in the Caucasus, in Eastern and Western Siberia, Far East and in Central Asia. Nettle is rich in organic and mineral substances, trace elements. Among them are flavonoids, nicotine, acetylcholine, histamine, coumarins, iron salts, manganese, copper, potassium, calcium, barium, boron, nickel, titanium, silicon, sulfur. In addition, in the ground part of the plant, essential oil, phenolcarboxylic acids, porphyrins, phytoncides and starch.

Speciation is the process of the emergence of new species on the basis of hereditary variability under the influence of natural selection. a) Allopatric (geographical) speciation - species arise as a result of long-term separation of populations (for example, the emergence of 3 subspecies of the great tit) b) Sympatric (ecological) speciation - a new species arises within the range of the original species. The main mechanisms are mutations (chromosomal, genomic) - for example, early-flowering and late-flowering rattle, spring and winter plant species, different dates fish spawning. 1) Geographical isolation - allopatric speciation 2) Biological isolation - sympatric speciation. SPECIATION

Ways and methods of speciation Signs Geographic Ecological 1. Area Settling into new territories Development of new ecological niches within the old area 2. Cause Division of the area by a geographical barrier Change in the position of individuals of a population in one territory 3. Main factor Geographical isolation between populations Selection in new environmental conditions 4 Result Emergence of new subspecies Separation of subspecies

Comparison of the concepts of "macroevolution" and "microevolution" Differences: Macroevolution - supraspecific evolution, leads to the formation of taxa of a higher rank than the species (genera, families, orders, classes, types, etc.) Macroevolution occurs in historically grandiose periods of time and not accessible to direct study. Microevolution occurs within a species, within its population. Similarities: The processes are based on: 1. hereditary variability; 2. struggle for existence; 3. natural selection; 4. insulation. They are divergent.

Aromorphoses (arogenesis) are major morpho-physiological changes. Idioadaptation (allomorphosis) - minor changes needed to adapt to specific living conditions General degeneration (catagenesis) - simplification of life processes as a result of the occupation of other habitats (organisms) Biological progress - an increase in the adaptability of organisms to environment, which leads to an increase in the number, area of ​​​​the range, etc.) Directions of evolution (according to morphological and anatomical features) Biological regression - a decrease in the adaptability of organisms to the environment, which leads to a decrease in the number, area of ​​​​the range, etc.)

Directions of evolution (at the biocenosis level) Divergence - divergence of characters in representatives of related taxa, due to adaptation to different conditions of existence; predetermines the appearance of homologues (structures and organs similar in origin, but different in function) Convergence - convergence of characters in unrelated taxa, due to adaptations to similar conditions of existence; predetermines the appearance of analogues (structures and organs of different origin, but similar in function) Parallelism - independent development in the evolution of closely related groups as a result of a high probability of similar mutations of the same genes in different species (Vavilov's law of homologous series)

Characteristic Biological progress Biological regression Population size Area Birth rate Mortality Adaptive properties Intraspecific differentiation Result Examples Biological progress and regression

Synthetic theory of evolution Authors: S. S. Chetverikov, J. Haldane, R. Fisher Main provisions: The elementary unit of evolution is the population Elementary phenomena: mutations, recombination of genes, reproductive isolation (divergence) The material for evolution is hereditary variability natural selection, mutational process, population waves, isolation The processes of variability are random and undirected. Evolution is gradual and long lasting. Speciation as a stage of the evolutionary process is a successive change of one temporary population by a succession of subsequent temporary populations. Evolution is undirected J. Haldane S. S. Chetverikov R. Fisher

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