A reasonable person in the system. Homo sapiens is a species that combines biological and social essence. But there were no Neanderthals back then.

Neanderthals [History of failed humanity] Vishnyatsky Leonid Borisovich

homeland of homo sapiens

With all the variety of views on the problem of the origin of Homo sapiens (Fig. 11.1), all the proposed options for its solution can be reduced to two main opposing theories, which were briefly discussed in Chapter 3. According to one of them, monocentric, the place of origin of people of the modern anatomical type there was some rather limited territorial region, from where they subsequently settled throughout the planet, gradually displacing, destroying or assimilating the hominid populations that preceded them in different places. Most often, East Africa is considered as such a region, and the corresponding theory of the appearance and spread of Homo sapiens is called the theory of the "African Exodus". The opposite position is taken by researchers who defend the so-called "multi-regional" - polycentric - theory, according to which the evolutionary formation of Homo sapiens took place everywhere, that is, in Africa, and in Asia, and in Europe, on a local basis, but with a more or less wide exchange genes between populations of these regions. Although the dispute between monocentrists and polycentrists, which has a long history, is still not over, the initiative is now clearly in the hands of supporters of the theory of the African origin of Homo sapiens, and their opponents have to give up one position after another.

Rice. 11.1. Possible origin scenarios Homo sapiens: A- the candelabra hypothesis, suggesting independent evolution in Europe, Asia and Africa from local hominids; b- multi-regional hypothesis, which differs from the first one by the recognition of gene exchange between populations different regions; V- the hypothesis of complete replacement, according to which our species originally appeared in Africa, from where it subsequently spread throughout the planet, displacing the forms of hominids that preceded it in other regions and at the same time not mixing with them; G- assimilation hypothesis, which differs from the hypothesis of complete replacement by the recognition of partial hybridization between sapiens and the aboriginal population of Europe and Asia

Firstly, fossil anthropological materials unequivocally indicate that people of a modern or very close physical type appeared in East Africa already at the end of the Middle Pleistocene, i.e., much earlier than anywhere else. The oldest known anthropological find attributable to Homo sapiens is the skull of Omo 1 (Fig. 11.2), discovered in 1967 near the northern coast of Lake. Turkana (Ethiopia). Its age, judging by the available absolute dates and a number of other data, ranges from 190 to 200 thousand years ago. The well-preserved frontal and, especially, the occipital bones of this skull are anatomically quite modern, as are the remains of the bones of the facial skeleton. A sufficiently developed chin protrusion is fixed. According to the conclusion of many anthropologists who studied this find, the skull of Omo 1, as well as the known parts of the postcranial skeleton of the same individual, do not bear signs that go beyond the range of variability usual for Homo sapiens.

Rice. 11.2. Skull Omo 1 - the oldest of all anthropological finds attributed to Homo sapiens

On the whole, three skulls found not so long ago at the Herto site in the Middle Awash, also in Ethiopia, are very similar in structure to the finds from Omo. One of them has come down to us almost completely (except for the lower jaw), the safety of the other two is also quite good. The age of these skulls is from 154 to 160 thousand years. In general, despite the presence of a number of primitive features, the morphology of the Kherto skulls allows us to consider their owners as ancient representatives modern form person. Comparable in age, the remains of people of a modern or very close to that anatomical type were also found at a number of other East African sites, for example, in the Mumba grotto (Tanzania) and the Dire-Dawa cave (Ethiopia). Thus, a number of well-studied and fairly reliably dated anthropological finds from East Africa indicate that people who did not differ or differed little in anatomical terms from the current inhabitants of the Earth lived in this region 150–200 thousand years ago.

Rice. 11.3. Some links in the evolutionary line, which led, as expected, to the appearance of the species Homo sapiens: 1 - Bodo, 2 - Broken Hill, 3 - Letoli, 4 - Omo 1, 5 - Border

Secondly, of all the continents, only Africa is known to have a large number of remains of transitional hominids, which make it possible, at least in general terms, to trace the process of transformation of local homo erectus into modern anatomical humans. It is believed that the immediate predecessors and ancestors of the first Homo sapiens in Africa could be hominids represented by skulls such as Singa (Sudan), Florisbad (South Africa), Ileret (Kenya) and a number of other finds. They date from the second half of the Middle Pleistocene. Skulls from Broken Hill (Zambia), Ndutu (Tanzania), Bodo (Ethiopia) and a number of other specimens are considered as somewhat earlier links in this line of evolution (Fig. 11.3). All African hominids, anatomically and chronologically intermediate between Homo erectus and Homo sapiens, are sometimes referred, together with their European and Asian contemporaries, to Homo Heidelbergensis, and sometimes are included in special species, the earlier of which is called Homo Rhodesiensis ( Homo rhodesiensis), and the later Homo helmei ( Homo helmei).

Thirdly, genetic data, according to most experts in this field, also point to Africa as the most likely initial center for the formation of the Homo sapiens species. It is no coincidence that the greatest genetic diversity among modern human populations is observed precisely there, and as we move away from Africa, this diversity decreases more and more. This is how it should be if the theory of the “African Exodus” is correct: after all, the populations of Homo sapiens, who were the first to leave their ancestral home and settled somewhere in the vicinity of it, “captured” only part of the species gene pool on the way, those groups that then spun off from them and moved even further - only a part of a part and so on.

Finally, fourthly, the skeleton of the first European Homo sapiens is characterized by a number of features that are typical of the inhabitants of the tropics and hot subtropics, but not of high latitudes. This has already been discussed in Chapter 4 (see Figures 4.3–4.5). This picture is in good agreement with the theory of the African origin of people of the modern anatomical type.

From the book Neanderthals [History of failed humanity] author Vishnyatsky Leonid Borisovich

Neanderthal + homo sapiens = ? So, as we already know, genetic and paleoanthropological data indicate that the wide distribution of people of the modern anatomical type outside Africa began about 60-65 thousand years ago. They were first colonized

author Kalashnikov Maxim

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From the book The Third Project. Volume II "Transition Point" author Kalashnikov Maxim

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From the book Naum Eitingon - Stalin's punishing sword author Sharapov Eduard Prokopevich

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From the book Forgotten Belarus author

Small Motherland

From the book History of Secret Societies, Unions and Orders the author Schuster Georg

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From the book Pre-Letopisnaya Rus. Rus' pre-Orda. Rus' and Golden Horde author Fedoseev Yury Grigorievich

Prehistoric Rus' Common ancestors. Homo sapiens. Space disasters. Global flood. The first resettlement of the Aryans. Cimmerians. Scythians. Sarmatians. Wends. The emergence of Slavic and Germanic tribes. Goths. Huns. Bulgarians. arr. Bravlin. Russian Khaganate. Hungarians. Khazar genius. Rus

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Chapter 6. Sapiens, but not our relative This lemur really gave the impression of a small man with a dog's head. B. Euvelmans Sapiens, but not homo? It is believed that there were no human ancestors in America. There were no great apes. special group ancestors

Before Homo sapiens, i.e. to the modern human stage, is just as difficult to satisfactorily document as the initial branching off of the hominid lineage. However, in this case, the matter is complicated by the presence of several applicants for such an intermediate position.

According to a number of anthropologists, the step that led directly to Homo sapiens was the Neanderthal (Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapiens neanderthalensis). Neanderthals appeared no later than 150 thousand years ago, and their various types flourished until the period approx. 40-35 thousand years ago, marked by the undoubted presence of well-formed H. sapiens (Homo sapiens sapiens). This epoch corresponded to the onset of the Wurm glaciation in Europe, i.e. ice age closest to modern times. Other scientists do not connect the origin of modern humans with Neanderthals, pointing out, in particular, that the morphological structure of the face and skull of the latter was too primitive to have time to evolve to the forms of Homo sapiens.

Neanderthaloids are usually conceived as stocky, hairy, animal-like humans with bent legs, a protruding head on a short neck, giving the impression that they have not yet fully achieved upright posture. Paintings and reconstructions in clay usually emphasize their hairiness and unjustified primitiveness. This image of a Neanderthal is a big distortion. First, we don't know if Neanderthals were hairy or not. Secondly, they were all completely upright. As for the evidence of the inclined position of the body, it is likely that they were obtained from the study of individuals suffering from arthritis.

One of the most surprising features of the entire Neanderthal series of finds is that the least recent of them were the most recent in appearance. This is the so-called. the classic Neanderthal type, whose skull is characterized by a low forehead, a heavy brow, a sloping chin, a protruding mouth area, and a long, low skullcap. However, their brain volume was larger than that of modern man. They certainly had a culture: there is evidence of funerary cults and possibly animal cults, since animal bones are found along with the fossils of classical Neanderthals.

At one time, it was believed that the classical type of Neanderthals lived only in southern and western Europe, and their origin is associated with the onset of the glacier, which placed them in conditions of genetic isolation and climatic selection. However, apparently similar forms are later found in some regions of Africa and the Middle East, and possibly in Indonesia. Such a wide distribution of the classical Neanderthal forces us to abandon this theory.

At the moment, there is no material evidence of any gradual morphological transformation of the classical type of Neanderthal into the modern type of man, with the exception of finds made in the Skhul cave in Israel. The skulls found in this cave are very different from each other, some of them have features that put them in an intermediate position between the two human types. According to some experts, this is evidence of the evolutionary change of the Neanderthal to modern humans, while others believe that this phenomenon is the result of intermarriage between representatives of two types of people, thus believing that Homo sapiens evolved independently. This explanation is supported by evidence that as early as 200–300 thousand years ago, i.e. before the advent of the classical Neanderthal, there was a type of human that most likely refers to the early Homo sapiens, and not to the "progressive" Neanderthal. We are talking about well-known finds - skull fragments found in Swanscom (England), and a more complete skull from Steinheim (Germany).

Differences in the question of the "Neanderthal stage" in human evolution are partly due to the fact that two circumstances are not always taken into account. First, it is possible for the more primitive types of any evolving organism to exist relatively unchanged at the same time that other branches of the same species are undergoing various evolutionary modifications. Secondly, migrations associated with a shift in climatic zones are possible. Such shifts were repeated in the Pleistocene as glaciers advanced and retreated, and man could follow shifts in the climatic zone. Thus, when considering long periods of time, it must be taken into account that the populations occupying a given area at a certain moment are not necessarily descendants of populations that lived there at an earlier period. It is possible that early Homo sapiens could migrate from the regions where they appeared, and then return to their former places after many thousands of years, having managed to undergo evolutionary changes. When the fully developed Homo sapiens appeared in Europe 35,000 to 40,000 years ago, during the warmer period of the last glaciation, it undoubtedly supplanted the classical Neanderthal that had occupied the same region for 100,000 years. Now it is impossible to determine for sure whether the Neanderthal population moved north, following the retreat of its usual climatic zone, or whether it mixed with Homo sapiens invading its territory.

Homo sapiens, or Homo sapiens, has undergone many changes since its inception, both in body structure and in social and spiritual development.

The emergence of people who had a modern physical appearance (type) and changed occurred in the late Paleolithic. Their skeletons were first discovered in the Cro-Magnon grotto in France, which is why people of this type were called Cro-Magnons. It was they who had a complex of all the basic physiological features that are characteristic of us. They, in comparison with that of the Neanderthals, reached high level. It is the Cro-Magnons that scientists consider our direct ancestors.

For some time this type of people existed simultaneously with the Neanderthals, who later died, since only the Cro-Magnons were sufficiently adapted to the conditions environment. It is with them that stone tools go out of use, and they are replaced by more skillfully crafted from bone and horn. In addition, more types of these tools appear - all kinds of drills, scrapers, harpoons and needles appear. This makes people more independent of climatic conditions and allows them to explore new territories. A reasonable person also changes his behavior in relation to his elders, a connection between generations appears - the continuity of traditions, the transfer of experience, knowledge.

Summing up the above, we can highlight the main aspects of the formation of the species Homo sapiens:

spiritual and psychological development, which leads to self-knowledge and the development of abstract thinking. As a result - the emergence of art, as evidenced by rock paintings and paintings;
pronunciation of articulate sounds (the origin of speech);
thirst for knowledge to pass it on to their fellow tribesmen;
the creation of new, more advanced tools of labor;
which allowed to tame (domesticate) wild animals and cultivate plants.

These events were an important milestone in the development of man. It was they who allowed him not to depend on the environment and

even exercise control over some of its aspects. Homo sapiens continues to undergo changes, the most important of which is

Taking advantage of the benefits modern civilization, progress, man is still trying to establish power over the forces of nature: changing the course of rivers, draining swamps, populating territories where life was previously impossible.

According to the modern classification, the Homo sapiens species is divided into 2 subspecies - Idaltu Man and Man. Such a division into subspecies appeared after the discovery in 1997 of remains that had some anatomical features similar to the skeleton of a modern person, in particular, the size of the skull.

According to scientific data, Homo sapiens appeared 70-60 thousand years ago, and during all this time of its existence as a species, it improved under the influence of only social forces, because no changes were found in the anatomical and physiological structure.

The totality of individuals of the human species is called the Earth, or. The interaction of individuals turns the population into , or . All information stored and circulating in society forms. All the results of society's activities, material and informational, form the human.

The human species, like many other biological species, is divided into two sexes: and. A male human is called a man, a female human is called a woman, and a human cub is called a child.

Compound

Some time in the composition of the species Homo sapiens included, subdividing the view into two subspecies: Homo sapiens neanderthalensis And Homo sapiens sapiens. It is currently assumed that the lines of Neanderthals and sapiens diverged about 500 thousand years ago, and their common ancestor was Homo antecessor(Man-predecessor), a man of a completely different species, and the line to the Neanderthals goes through another species - the Heidelberg man, that is, Neanderthals and sapiens cannot be subspecies within the same species.

However, the subspecies status of modern humans remains, as an early subspecies of Homo sapiens, Homo sapiens idaltu ("Elder"), is distinguished.

Human Origins

Modern man appeared about 200 thousand years ago as a result of evolution. Using a "rough" analysis of the mitochondrial, Rebecca Kann determined the age of the mitochondrial Eve (the last female who is the maternal ancestor of all modern people) about 160,000 years ago. 196 thousand years ago - the age of the skulls Omo-1 and Omo-2 (homo sapiens) c.

About 100 thousand years ago, people left Africa and began to settle on other continents. At that moment, the primary humanity did not exceed 10 thousand individuals, and only a few hundred people moved outside Africa.

About 66 thousand years ago, people reached. At that time, people coexisted on.

Appeared about 40 thousand years ago.

At the same time, some human abilities that distinguish him from the rest of the animal world still cannot be satisfactorily described in terms. For example, it remains predominantly a concept; accordingly, the question of its origin today lies outside the framework.

Of modern animals, the closest relative of Homo sapiens is, with which a person shares about 98% of common genes. The human and chimpanzee lineages diverged about 6 million years ago.

Mythologies and religions

Some religious groups do not deny the origin of man - see.

In most cases, the entire human race comes from a pair of progenitors - who became the father and mother of the rest of the people.
In Norse mythology, this is
in and descended from it religions -
In some mythologies, the gods create an entire nation at once.
In, as well as in the human race arose several times.

Appearance

The head is big. On the upper limbs there are five long flexible fingers, one of which is somewhat spaced from the rest, and on the lower limbs there are five short fingers that help balance when walking. In addition to walking, humans are also capable of running, but, unlike most primates, they are not.

bipedalism

Humans are the only modern mammals that walk on two limbs. Some monkeys are also capable of walking upright, but only for a short time.

hairline

The human body is usually covered with little hair, except for the areas of the head, and in sexually mature individuals - the groin, armpits and, especially in men, the arms and legs. Hair growth on the neck, face (and), chest and sometimes on the back is much more typical for men. (The absence of hair is also found in some other mammals, in particular in.)

sexual dimorphism

Skin pigmentation

Human skin is able to change pigmentation: under the action of sunlight it darkens, appears. This feature is most noticeable in the Caucasian and Mongoloid races. In addition, synthesis occurs in the human skin under the influence of sunlight.

Physical parameters

The average weight of a man is 70-80 kg, women - 50-70 kg, although there are also much larger representatives (up to 400-500 kg). The average height of a modern person is: 165 cm for women and 180 cm for men. The average human height has changed over time. So, people were shorter, which is noticeable in the size of the knightly armor of that time.

Lifespan

Human life expectancy depends on a number of factors and in developed countries averages 79 years. According to the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, in 2001 the average life expectancy in Russia was 58 years for men and 66 years for women.

Intraspecific polymorphism

Within the species Homo sapiens, there are several - intraspecific groups of populations that have a similar set of inherited morphological and physiological characteristics, varying within certain limits and due to long-term adaptation processes of people living in different regions.

At the same time, a sufficiently high degree of variability is also observed within races, which makes it possible to single out subraces (ethno-racial groups), that is, it is impossible to single out discrete features and types that uniquely determine race.

The species shows a continuous distribution of body types (muscular, bone, fat), skin pigmentation, and other traits; thus, a race or ethno-racial group in terms of population genetics is defined as a group with a specific distribution of the frequencies of the genes responsible for these traits. The complexes of traits characteristic of ethno-racial groups reflect not only the adaptive response to living conditions, but also the migration history of populations and the history of genetic interaction with other populations.

reproduction

Compared to animals reproductive function human and have a number of characteristics. Sexual maturity occurs at 16-18 years.

Unlike most mammals, whose reproductive ability is limited by periods of estrus, women are inherently menstrual cycle, lasting about 28 days, due to which they are capable of pregnancy throughout the year. Pregnancy can occur at a certain period of the monthly cycle (), but there are no external signs of a woman's readiness for it. In addition, unlike all other mammals, women can have sex even during pregnancy. However, reproductive function is limited by age: men lose their ability to reproduce on average at 55-60 years old, and women - at 40-50 years old (with the onset).

Behavior

Man is a complex social being. His behavior depends both on biological factors (physiological needs, instincts) and on many non-biological factors - the culture of society (traditions, cultural values), the laws of the state, personal moral convictions, worldview and religious views, but the degree of influence of these factors is different for individual individuals. and individual populations. The study of human behavior.

A person has the ability to act independently of, to anticipate the results of his actions in advance and make plans. Some primates also have the ability to foresee the consequences of their actions, but it is developed an order of magnitude lower than that of humans.

Although cases of conscious ones are known, there is, however, that a person for the most part, like other animals, is not able to act independently of, and his highly developed is only the realization of these.

Nutrition

People are omnivorous - they eat fruits and root crops, meat of vertebrates and many marine animals, eggs of birds and reptiles, and dairy products. The variety of food of animal origin is limited mainly to specific food. A significant part of food (and animal food - almost always) is subjected to heat treatment. There is also a wide variety of drinks.

Man is the only animal that massively consumes. Most animals have an aversion to ethyl alcohol and drinks containing it (although there are exceptions, in particular, some dogs can drink beer).

Newborn babies, like the babies of other mammals, feed on mother's milk.

Other features

Differences from animals

Man has the most developed brain among animals. The ratio of brain mass to body mass is greater than that of any other animal, and the absolute mass of the brain is greater only for and.

Man is the only mammal with the ability to articulate speech. Many birds, for example, also have the ability for articulate speech. In the past, it was believed that parrots repeat words without understanding their meaning, but there is evidence that a parrot can be taught meaningful speech (see Alex). There were also experiments in which mammals (monkeys, dolphins) were taught to understand simple phrases or generate them using sign language, etc. (see).

A person has well-developed areas of the brain responsible for balance and coordination of movements, which allows walking on two legs. The olfactory regions, on the contrary, are poorly developed, which corresponds to an extremely weak sense of smell. On the other hand, humans, like all primates, have stereoscopic vision.

In a year, it was found that 212 copies of the MGC8902 gene are present in the human genome - significantly more than in the genomes - 37 copies, mice and rats - one copy each. The MGC8902 gene encodes , the function of which is unknown, but it has been found that this protein is present in

reasonable man ( Homo sapiens) is a species of the genus Homo, a family of hominids, a detachment of primates. It is considered the dominant animal species on the planet and the highest in terms of development.

Currently Homo sapiens is the only representative of the genus Homo. Several tens of thousands of years ago, the genus was represented by several species at once - Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons and others. It has been established for certain that the direct ancestor of Homo sapiens is (Homo erectus, 1.8 million years ago - 24 thousand years ago). For a long time it was believed that the closest human ancestor is, however, in the course of research it became clear that the Neanderthal is a subspecies, parallel, lateral or sister line of human evolution and does not belong to the ancestors of modern humans. Most scientists are inclined to the version that the direct ancestor of man became, which existed 40-10 thousand years ago. The term "Cro-Magnon" is defined by Homo sapiens, who lived up to 10 thousand years ago. The closest relatives of Homo sapiens of the primates that exist today are the common chimpanzee and the pygmy chimpanzee (Bonobo).

The formation of Homo sapiens is divided into several stages: 1. The primitive community (from 2.5-2.4 million years ago, the Old Stone Age, Paleolithic); 2. Ancient world (in most cases determined by major events ancient greece and Rome (First Olympiad, foundation of Rome), from 776-753 BC. e.); 3. Middle Ages or Middle Ages (V-XVI centuries); 4. New time (XVII-1918); Modern times (1918 - our days).

Today Homo sapiens has populated the whole Earth. The latest estimate of the world's population is 7.5 billion people.

Video: The origins of humanity. Homo sapiens

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