Teaching and teaching pedagogical psychology. Crib: Psychology of learning and learning activities. The relationship between the concepts of "learning", "teaching" and "learning"

Educational psychology: lecture notes by Esin E V

7. Learning and its types

Learning fills our whole life. People come into contact with learning in communication with each other, in the process of emotional development and social growth. A person learns to love or hate, to behave correctly or incorrectly, etc. Learning in its most general form is defined as the formation of a new individual experience in the process of an active relationship of the organism with the external environment. At the same time, a set of behavioral acts that are adapted to specific environmental conditions should be understood as an individual experience.

There are many theories of learning, in each of which one can single out some separate aspect of the process being studied. For example, behaviorists in the study of learning mainly rely on externally observable behavior, which they try to control by various influences. Ethologists pay more attention to learning in natural conditions and interspecies differences in learning. Cognitive psychologists are interested in what mental structures are formed during learning. Many of them are trying to model learning processes in the form of computer programs, and there is a direction that deals with modeling learning processes called connectionism.

Despite the variety of theories, most researchers agree with some general provisions, namely:

1) learning is a spasmodic or gradual change in human behavior. There are two types of temporal flow of the learning process. Forms of learning such as operant or classical conditioning, proceed gradually, and such forms of learning as imprinting or insight,– instantly;

2) although development is always accompanied by learning, the change in behavior in the process of learning is not a direct consequence of the maturation of the organism. The problem of learning is directly related to the problems of maturation and development. In children, it is difficult to distinguish the result of maturation from the result of learning, so learning is studied in adults;

3) exercise improves the learning process;

4) a change in behavior as a result of the use of psychoactive substances or fatigue is not learning;

5) the ability of the organism to learn is determined by species. Moreover, the last provision is the main merit of ethologists.

There are four main types of learning today:

1) addictive. Its essence boils down to the fact that within a short period of time a person learns not to take into account or not pay attention to recurring events;

2) classical conditioning. A person with this type of learning learns to connect events one with another if they constantly follow each other. In the future, when one event occurs, a person expects the onset of the second;

3) operant conditioning. This is a higher form of learning, the essence of which is that a person begins to develop new ways of behavior in order to achieve his goals;

4) complex learning. This type of learning involves the emergence of new forms of behavior and new associations, as well as the formation of abstract knowledge about the environment and the emergence of new strategies for solving problems.

Habituation is the simplest kind of learning, which is intensively studied by recording the activity of individual cells of the nervous system in animals.

Classical conditioning as the development of conditioned reflexes studied I. P. Pavlov on the example of the relationship between the production of saliva in dogs with such an insignificant stimulus as a bell. He placed the dog in a special installation with an automatically fed feeder and fixed it with straps. Each time the bell was turned on, the dog was fed food into the feeder. After repeated repetitions of the combination of turning on the bell with food, the dogs developed salivation at the sound of the bell alone.

In this way, the animal learned to associate the activation of the bell with the delivery of food. I. P. Pavlov called the bell conditioned stimulus, food - unconditioned stimulus, causing a salivation reaction unconditioned reflex. At the same time, salivation as a reaction to a conditioned stimulus began to be called conditioned reflex. IP Pavlov believed that in the process of developing conditioned reflexes, a connection is established between the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus, as a result of which the conditioned stimulus replaces the unconditioned one. The repeated combination of a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus is called the phase of the development of a conditioned reflex. In order for the conditioned reflex to fade, after a clear appearance of the conditioned reflex to the presentation of the bell (conditioned signal), the food supply can be suspended. Extinction does not lead to the destruction of the connection between the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus, since when the supply of the unconditioned stimulus is resumed after the conditioned stimulus, the conditioned reflex is soon restored.

It is important that any event can act as a conditioned stimulus, and any object or event biologically significant for the organism can act as an unconditioned stimulus.

In foreign psychology, the development of conditioned reflexes began to be called conditioning and after the appearance of its new forms - classical conditioning.

Term operant conditioning introduced B. F. Skinner. Operant conditioning is learning in which the acquisition of new experience and its implementation through behavior lead to the achievement of some specific goal. It is inherent not only to people, but also to simpler creatures and allows a person to influence the environment.

The operant conditioning procedure has been used for centuries in animal training. American explorer E. Thorndike at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. tried to find out whether intelligence exists in animals. In order to find out, he placed hungry cats in a special box with food on the outside. The animals could open the cage door only if they pressed the pedal inside the box. At first, the cats tried to get the bait by sticking their paws through the bars of the cage. After a series of failures, they usually examined everything inside, then performed various actions. And in the end, when the animal stepped on the lever, the door of the cage opened. As a result of numerous repetitions of this procedure, the animals gradually ceased to perform unnecessary actions and immediately began to press the pedal. E. Thorndike called it learning by trial and error, because before the animal learns to perform the desired behavioral act, it implements many erroneous ones. The experiment showed that the more times the animal got into the problem box - the cage, the faster it got out of there. In other words, the more often the procedure was performed, the less mistakes performed prior to the desired action. Also, the American researcher found that those actions that are encouraged, that is, reinforced, were more likely to occur later, and those that were not reinforced were not used by animals in subsequent samples. In other words, the animal learned to perform only those actions that were followed by reinforcement - this is the law of effect.

E. Thorndike made certain conclusions about the rational behavior of animals. He denied that they had any signs of intelligence, since learning occurs blindly, through trial and error, the learning mechanism is to establish links between stimuli and reactions. After the publication of the works of E. Thorndike, the direction of behaviorism began to take shape.

B. F. Skinner believed that operant behavior is spontaneous and occurs without any obvious stimuli, and reactive behavior is a consequence of any stimulus. Operant behavior can be modified by reinforcement. By creating a certain order of reinforcement, behavior can be controlled, it can be controlled. After many years of experimentation, B. F. Skinner found that the patterns of learning are the same for both animals and humans. Performing an action with a high frequency is due to a high operant level.

The operant conditioning procedure is used to teach animals complex forms of behavior that could not occur in natural conditions (for example, to teach a bear to drive a moped, etc.). Such complexity of behavior can be developed in animals using the procedure of behavior formation.

If you stop giving reinforcement, there will be an extinction of operant behavior. For example, a small child exhibits hysterical forms of behavior when parents do not give him the attention he needs. Parents calm him down and reinforce the further manifestation of hysteria. Cancellation of reinforcement in the form of attention leads to the extinction, i.e., the disappearance, of all hysterical manifestations.

In operant learning, a special role is played by reinforcement, which is any object or event that is significant for the organism, for the sake of which it performs this behavior. There is negative and positive reinforcement, and objects biologically necessary for the body (water, food, etc.) always act as positive reinforcement. In humans, cultural products or cultural values are added to biologically necessary objects. Negative reinforcement is life-threatening, so the body tries to avoid it or prevent its action. As a negative reinforcement, researchers often use electricity or a loud sound, and the learning procedure in such cases is usually called aversive conditioning.

The experiment showed that learning is associated with experience, as well as with innate forms of behavior.

There are complex forms of learning, such as latent (hidden) learning, in which the change is hidden, and its characteristics are difficult to trace along the learning curves. According to E. Tolman, learning occurs due to the formation of a cognitive map of the environment. The cognitive map indicates the routes and lines of behavior and the relationship of the elements of the environment. In this case, there is a shift in emphasis from external causes of behavior to internal ones.

German psychologist W. Köhler studied whether intelligence, or intelligent behavior, is observed in primates when solving various problems. E. Thorndike, while working with animals, came to the conclusion that animals do not have rational behavior, they learn through trial and error and mechanically associate stimuli with reinforced actions. W. Köhler, working with chimpanzees, came to the opposite conclusion. In his opinion, chimpanzees show intelligent behavior of the same kind as humans. W. Köhler believed that in a problem situation, if auxiliary means are not hidden, that is, the whole situation appears in integrity, animals come to the correct solution. In this case, learning occurs instantly. Instant learning is confirmed by the fact that, having solved the problem once, the animal solves it in the future without problems. Learning, discovered by W. Köhler in primates, differs from learning by trial and error, or from operant conditioning, and is described as a phenomenon of insight, or insight. Insight is very similar to latent learning, but with insight learning happens all at once.

Both animals and people, learning something, always use their old individual experience. Old experience can improve the course of learning, this can be seen by considering latent learning. Organisms can use previously learned actions in a very different situation. When previously acquired individual experience affects its subsequent formation, this is called transference. For example, a person who has learned one foreign language, learn the second faster. Or, if a person has learned to ride a bicycle, then it will be easier for him to master riding a motorcycle.

There are two types of transfer: negative And positive.

Positive transfer improves the flow of the learning process, while negative transfer usually makes learning more difficult or does not affect it. For example, if you teach animals to go through a maze from one end to the other, and then teach them to go through the same maze, only in the opposite direction, then learning will be slower or exactly the same as in another new maze.

Imitation, or imitation, is the formation of new behavior by reproducing the actions of another person. For example, young children often imitate their parents: girls try on their mother's dresses and paint their lips with lipstick, and boys put on their father's shoes, take a pencil in their mouth like a cigarette, etc. Imitation provides the process of acquiring specific species behaviors, it also allows you to transfer species experience from generation to generation.

In humans, imitation (imitation) is most pronounced in childhood. Imitating their parents, characters from films, children show all this in the game. It is believed that imitation occurs without any reinforcement, so ethologists believe that people have a willingness to imitate, but this willingness is unconscious. Observing the behavior of close people, their tone of voice, manner of speaking, language and style of speech, habits, style of clothing, a person adopts all this and begins to behave, dress and talk in a similar way. All this happens unintentionally.

According to an American psychologist A. Bandura, Humans tend to learn more by observation than by trial and error. The ability to learn by adopting the behavior of other people allows a person to reach great heights without risking his life. It is difficult to distinguish between imitation and observational learning, since imitation is part of the latter. Unconsciousness is one of the hallmarks of imitation, and learning by observation is mostly conscious.

There are four main processes in learning by observation:

1) the process of attention, it includes paying attention to the behavior of the "model" and its correct understanding;

2) the process of preservation, when, when observing the "model", a person remembers its behavior in the form of information that is presented in the representation. Representations can be verbal and non-verbal, arising through verbal coding or through figurative coding;

3) a motor-reproductive process during which symbolically encoded information is translated into actions;

4) the stage of dependence on various reinforcement variables, i.e., on motivational processes.

Let's give an example of learning by observation: a child at school follows the movements of a teacher drawing on a blackboard - this is the first stage of learning; the child remembers all the movements of the teacher (model) when drawing on the board - the second stage; then at home he tries to reproduce what he remembers - this is the third stage; the fourth stage - some children perform these actions because they like it, others because they are afraid of a bad grade. In fact, this is the kind of learning in which a person learns cultural and social experience.

Thus, we were able to consider such types of learning as habituation, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and more. complex types such as latent learning, cognitive maps, insight, transfer, imitation, and observational learning.

The metaphor “generating and testing tower” is also associated with learning, in which “tower” means an evolutionary process, i.e., a development process, and “generating” and “testing” are functions that ensure the flow of this process. "Tower" has several floors. The so-called "Popper creatures" live in it on the third floor, which include most animals, from the simplest to humans. They are named like this D. Dennett, because K. Popper noted that the selection of behavior allows our hypotheses to die instead of us. Popperian creatures use, as the most efficient means of survival, a preliminary selection of possible forms of behavior, or acts. Such selection is done in order to discard unnecessary steps before implementing them in the habitat. The feedback here is the filtering of information coming from the external environment, and the filter should consist of a model of the external environment that contains the maximum amount of information about the external environment.

Currently, the idea of Popperian creatures is increasingly penetrating into learning theory. At the same time, evidence is accumulating that the learning process is not an instructive process, where the environment instructs the organism about what it needs to do, but rather a selective one. This means that the selection of the necessary forms of behavior takes place inside the organism in advance. Since human behavior is provided by the nervous system, the selection takes place there, or rather, in its main part - the brain. Many neurons, uniting into systems, ensure the functioning of the body and its behavior.

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Question.

Psychology of teaching and educational activity.

Plan

1. Tasks of the psychology of learning

2.Psychological features (components) of learning.

3. Educational activity as a system.

4. Concepts of learning and their psychological basis.

5.Theory P.Ya. Galperin

6. Theory V.V. Davydov - D.B. Elkonin

7. Theory of Sh.A. Amonashvili

8. The theory of collective way of learning (CSE) V.K. Dyachenko

9. Theory of A.M. Matyushkin.

10. Case study method

11. Incident Method .

12.Business game.

13. Theory of suggestopedia .

14.Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP) Theory

15. Waldorf School R. Steiner .

Answer to the question

Human life is, first of all, continuous adaptation to the conditions of an equally constantly changing environment, it is the development of new forms of behavior aimed at achieving certain goals, this is a variety of learning. Learning can be carried out at different levels: the development of reactive behavior, operant behavior, cognitive learning, conceptual behavior. At student age, various forms of cognitive learning are most pronounced.

Education is a form of organizing the process of transferring knowledge, a social system aimed at transferring the experience of previous generations to a new generation. The organization of learning unfolds in space and time. In the learning system, the teacher and the student actively interact. This interaction is carried out through communication, as a result of which educational activity. In the course of the historical development of society, the accumulated knowledge is fixed in various material forms: objects, books, tools. The process of transforming ideal knowledge into a material form is called objectification. In order to use this knowledge, the next generation must isolate, understand the idea fixed in the tool of labor or the object of knowledge. This process is called deconstruction. It took an extraordinary mind and special abilities to invent and create, for example, a steam engine. Usage requires an understanding of how it works, i.e. awareness of the idea that is objectified in the engine. Thus, the generation that began to use steam engines must de-objectify the creator's idea, in other words, understand the principle of the device. Only under this condition is it possible to use this item (steam engine). Learning activity acts as a means by which perfect knowledge and social experience is formed. The cognitive nature of educational activity is its essential characteristic. It determines all other components of educational activity, creates its focus: needs and motives; goals and actions; funds and operations. Components of educational activity can turn into each other. For example, an action can become a goal or a need, the operation of completing a test can turn into a motive that stimulates further learning, etc. In such transformations lies the dynamics of educational activity, the core of which is its objectivity. The concept of objective-practical activity as a transformer of reality serves as the basis for a scientific approach to the analysis of cognitive processes.

Psychology of learning - this is a scientific direction that investigates the psychological patterns of the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities, the psychological mechanisms of learning and learning activities, age-related changes due to the learning process. The main practical goal of the psychology of learning is aimed at finding ways to manage the learning process. At the same time, teaching is considered as a specific activity, including motives, goals and learning activities. Ultimately, it should lead to the formation of psychological neoplasms and properties of a full-fledged personality. Teaching is a universal activity, because it forms the basis for mastering any other activity. The central task of the psychology of learning - analysis and development of requirements for educational activities carried out by the student in the pedagogical process. It is concretized in a complex of more particular tasks:

identifying the relationship between learning and mental development and developing measures to optimize the pedagogical impacts of the process;

identification of general social factors of pedagogical influence that affect the mental development of the child;

system-structural analysis of the pedagogical process;

revealing the peculiarities of the nature of individual manifestations of mental development, due to the peculiarities of educational activity.

In psychology, a single theoretical foundation has not yet been formed that allows for the analysis and classification of psychological and pedagogical requirements for educational activities. There are various approaches and theories covering this issue. At the same time, we can talk about certain scientific and psychological developments that make it possible to determine the methodological foundations of such an analysis.

Analysis of learning activities can proceed from the following fundamental provisions.

1. Educational activity reflects the forecast of those changes that may occur in the mental development of a student included in the educational process. It also defines the system for evaluating these changes.

2. The organization of educational activities provides for correlation with the personal capabilities of the student and the potential for their development.

3. Each level of personal development is provided with specific forms and content of educational activities.

Learning activity has structural and systemic character. A system is a unity of components and their interconnections. The psychological structure is the structure and property of those stable factors that operate in the conditions of fulfilling the task of organizing educational activities.

The structure includes:

1. Components of activity, without which it is impossible. This includes the objectives and goals of the activity; its subject, methods of decision-making and implementation; actions of control and evaluation of activities.

2. Relationships between the indicated components. Impacts, operations, elements of a functional organization, operational display systems, etc. can be interconnected.

3. The dynamics of the establishment of these relationships. Depending on the regularity of the activation of connections, symptom complexes of mental processes and functionally important properties are formed.

All structural elements are connected by numerous bonds. Elements of the structure are conditionally indivisible parts of it. Any structure provides the implementation of some functional property, for the sake of which it was actually created, i.e. its main function (for example, the education system is created to realize the function of learning). A function is the process of bringing about a certain result.

The combination of structure and function leads to the formation systems . The main characteristics of the system:

1) it is something whole;

2) is functional in nature;

3) differentiates into a number of elements with certain properties;

4) individual elements interact in the process of performing a certain function;

5) the properties of the system are not equal to the properties of its elements.

6) has information and energy connection with the environment;

7) the system is adaptive, changes the nature of functioning depending on the information about the results obtained;

8) different systems can give the same result.

The system is dynamic, i.e. develops during

time. Speaking about the psychological system of activity, we mean by it the unity of mental properties that serve the activity and the connections between them. From the standpoint of a systematic approach, individual mental components (including functions and processes) in activity act as a holistic formation, organized in terms of performing the functions of a specific activity (i.e. achieving a goal), i.e. in the form of a psychological system of activity (PSD). PSD is an integral unity of the mental properties of the subject and their comprehensive connections. The educational process in all its manifestations is realized exclusively by the psychological system of activity. Within its framework, a restructuring of the individual qualities of a person takes place through their construction, restructuring, based on motives, goals, and conditions of activity. Actually, this is how the accumulation of individual experience, the formation of knowledge and the development of the student's personality arise.

Psychological components of learning As a systemic organization, learning activity has relatively stable ("static") components and links between them. Stable structural elements can be conditionally called the "skeleton" of educational activity. These are its components that are relatively stable and absolute for it. Simply put, without them, activity simply does not exist. These components are:

Subject of study

Student (subject of learning);

Actually learning activities (methods of learning, learning activities);

Teacher (subject of learning).

Subject of study - it is knowledge, skills and abilities that need to be learned. Student - This is a person who is influenced by the development of knowledge, skills, and who has certain prerequisites for such development. Learning activities - it is a means by which new knowledge, skills and abilities are formed. Teacher - this is a person who performs supervisory and regulatory functions, ensuring the coordination of the student's activities until he can do it himself.

Sustainable components are connected to each other by connections, among which the main ones will be: motivational, emotional, cognitive, informational. The general orientation of educational activity is Gnostic, subject.

All of these elements should be related to each other in a harmonious unity. Only then will the system function with maximum efficiency. Any defect or loss of any component leads to deformation, destruction or disintegration of the entire system. She is unable to fulfill her main function - teaching.

Compared to other activities, learning activities have their own specifics. The traditional scheme "subject - actual activity - object - result" looks like this:

If the “object” is the personality of the student (“L” (person) of the student), then the scheme takes on a fundamentally different color. The main, active force in ordinary activities is the "subject". In learning activities, activity comes from both the “subject” (teacher) and “P-person” (student).

All the main components of activity: motive, methods of activity, results begin to acquire a dual personal meaning, due to the personality of the student and the personality of the teacher. The object of educational activity is the holistic personality ("I") of the student, i.e. complex psychosocial system. No less complex system is the personality of the teacher. In the aggregate of their mutual influences on the subject of study, methods of teaching and the result, they form a supersystem of "learning activity". It is known that the impact on some element of the system entails a change in the state of the entire system. With a complex combination of at least two personalities (teacher and student), the impact on various parts of the “learning activity” system is ongoing. Consequently, the system itself is constantly in active dynamic change. Teaching always entails a restructuring of both the consciousness and the mental properties of the individuals participating in it.

Learning activity as a system

Starting the implementation of the educational process, the teacher has a specific goal and motive for the activity. The student included in this process also has a goal and motive for the activity, but they are different than those of the teacher. The aim of the teacher is to “teach something to the student”. The student's goal is to "learn something". The motive for the teacher's activity may be interest in the relevant professional activity, the need to ensure one's existence through this activity, a sense of duty, love for children, etc. The motive for the student's activity may be interest in the subject, the desire to assert himself, fear of parents demanding school attendance, conformity, etc. The motives of the teacher and the student not only may not coincide, but may even be directly opposite.

Now consider the ways in which the teacher and the student carry out educational activities. The first - with the help of certain techniques explains the content, stimulates interest, controls and tests students. The second - with the help of also quite specific techniques, assimilates the content, perceives and processes information, implements the activities of self-control, self-correction, etc. And here we also see significant differences in the actions used, operations, methods, forms. It would seem that the most stable structure is the subject of training. However, here we see significant differences. Abstract scientific content presented by a particular teacher has a sign of subjectivity in the assessment of this information. Knowledge perceived and realized by the student acquires the characteristic of "subject relatedness", i.e. become understood knowledge, but they can be very far from the primary, abstract knowledge and from what the teacher transmitted.

We can see an even stronger difference in the methods of communication used by the teacher and the student, in the functional states, emotional assessments of both sides. We see how the perception and implementation of the activities of the student and the teacher differ significantly, but at the same time they carry out a single (joint) educational activity. How is this unity achieved?

Educational activity requires from those participating in it not the "sameness" of its implementation, but unidirectionality. It is precisely in the underestimation of this fact that the mistake of many teachers lies, who require students to “do as I do” or evaluate them by “measuring themselves”. Its efficiency is connected with the phenomenon of objective psychological difference between the components of the joint educational activity of a teacher and a student. The closer the understanding of the goals (“I want to teach this” - the teacher, “I want to learn exactly this” - the student), motivation (attitude towards the learning process at the moment both the student and the teacher), emotional acceptance of the learning situation (both for the teacher and for the student it is emotionally attractive), the coordination of ways of presenting, perceiving and processing information, forms of adjustment, control and self-control of activities, the more successful the educational process is. Diagram 1 below illustrates the described situation. The influence of the teacher "through" the subject of study is directed to the student. In the same direction, motives and emotional mood are concentrated, the most adequate methods and forms of actions and techniques are used. Ideally, the student, having in principle other interests, methods, attitudes, directs his activity to the teacher and through him to the subject of study.

Thus, learning activity becomes maximally unidirectional and successful. However, a deviation towards at least one component leads to a mismatch, deformation of the activity and a decrease in its effectiveness. For example, the teacher directs all his efforts to explain the material of the lesson, and the student at this time does not wait until the end of the lessons to run to play hockey, therefore, his focus will be completely different, and the effectiveness of educational activities, despite the efforts of the teacher, is extremely low. Another example: a teacher quarreled with her husband and came to class upset. During the lesson, her thoughts returned to her personal problems. The students, noticing her distraction, began to behave more freely. Violations of discipline pissed her off, she yelled at the students, her work efficiency dropped sharply.

In the above diagram, the teacher influences the student through the subject, directs his motivational, emotional, communicative and other influences on him. The appearance of factors not related to the student can lead the impact in the other direction. The same picture can be observed in the behavior of the student. The occurrence of side factors deforms educational activity, causing a different direction of personal activity.

Concepts of learning and their psychological foundations

As the information and technological development of society increases and the requirements for the personal and educational level of each next generation increase, the question of improving and scientifically substantiating the education system is becoming more and more acute. Since society began to create special educational structures, scientific theories began to emerge aimed at improving these structures. Currently, there are numerous theories, concepts, developments, united under the general name "pedagogical technologies". The category of "pedagogical technologies" includes rather heterogeneous studies: from specific didactic schemes to methodological psychological concepts that substantiate fundamental approaches to the analysis of educational activity. Given the specifics of the consideration of learning activities from the point of view of the psychology of learning, we must analyze those theories and concepts that reveal the personal-psychological aspect of learning.

As part of traditional approach in which the goal of learning was the formation of knowledge, skills and abilities, the analysis of individual elements of learning dominated. As a rule, educational activity was considered at the productive level, in abstraction from the subject and object of activity. The student was perceived as a formal figure, a "receiver and accumulator" of information transmitted in the form of knowledge, skills and abilities.

The current situation dictates new requirements. The thesis “to teach knowledge” is replaced by the thesis “to teach to gain knowledge”. The abstract "student" does not exist, we are dealing with a unique "I", personality of the child, and personality developing. In psychology, the modern progressive view of learning is implemented in two mutually complementary approaches: activity and system genetic.

activity the approach was originally built as a psychological and pedagogical concept with a focus on practical application within the framework of the psychology of learning. The founder of the activity approach is L.S. Vygotsky. It was he who first put forward the idea that development is carried out by mastering special tools in the course of training. The function of the tool is performed by a sign (for example, a word). As you master the manipulation of signs (“actions with tools”), mental functions develop. The assimilation of signs and the development of actions with them is the basis of developmental learning. The assimilation is carried out due to the mechanism interiorization. Internalization acts as the formation of internal mental structures through external influence. Education is, first of all, the internalization of external activity into internal mental activity. Ideas L.S. Vygotsky were fruitfully developed by domestic scientists A.N. Leontiev, A.V. Zaporozhets, P.Ya. Galperin, D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov and others. As a result, the categorical framework of the activity approach was formulated, which can be expressed as follows:

The unit of consideration of educational activity within the framework of the activity approach is action. This can be a specific “action with a sign”, “purposeful educational mental actions”, or “mental actions”, etc.

The main psychological mechanism of educational activity is internalization.

Assessment of the level of development, i.e. the effectiveness of the learning process takes place at an effective level.

Personality is formed through upbringing, "socialization" (i.e., the inclusion of the child in the system of social relations).

Considering various approaches to the organization of educational activities, it must be remembered that any system of education causes not only changes in the cognitive sphere of the student, but also a significant restructuring of his personality. If the formation of personality is not included in the central task of organizing educational activities, then personal development occurs spontaneously, unpredictably, and sometimes defectively. The modern approach dictates the requirement to consider personal development as the main thing in training. This task is most fruitfully solved within the framework of the system genetic approach, which is used primarily by personality-oriented, humanistic concepts.

The second approach systemogenetic, was formed within the framework of the general concept of studying the human psyche. Domestic psychologists substantiated the idea of a systemic formation of activity and mental abilities. The notion of a level, hierarchical construction of activity in the course of learning made it possible to reveal the essential mechanisms of mental changes, to consider educational activity from its “internal”, procedural side. It is within the framework of training that level analysis is most fully presented in the concept of V.D. Shadrikova, . According to the author, in the course of learning, the student forms a number of hierarchically connected levels, representing the system of educational activity. There are six levels:

Personal motivational. Learning begins with the “acceptance” of it by the student. Motivation for study is formed (for example, interest). The attitude of the student to the subject, teacher, method of teaching, etc. is determined. Cognitive and other needs, claims, values, social connections, etc. are developed.

Component target. The student masters the actions with which you can learn the proposed information or apply it in practice. Every action has a purpose and a meaning. These components of the action are accepted by the student to the extent that they can be consistent with his subjective abilities and capabilities.

Structural-functional. Assimilated knowledge, skills, learning activities are effective only if they are built into a single system of learning activities. Consequently, certain connections should be formed between them, ensuring the dynamic (adaptive) nature of the activity. The formation of links between individual components and the determination of their weight for a given activity occurs at the structural and functional level.

Informational. Carrying out educational activities, the student constantly "rotates" in the information field. However, he does not assimilate all the information, but only “necessary and sufficient” for solving the tasks facing him. Thus, an indicative basis of educational activity is formed, which can provide one or another level of success of the activity.

Psychophysiological. This is the level of physiological and psycho-physiological systems, activation mechanisms that provide energy for the activity of learning.

Individual psychological. Each student carries out learning activities in their own way. A different combination of abilities and their levels of development is involved, in each learning situation various mental functions are activated (for example, one student will complete this task at the level of memorization, another at the level of formal logical understanding, the third at the level of creative solution).

The listed levels are formed and act not sequentially, but simultaneously, ensuring the formation of the student's goal, mode of activity, conceptual model, indicative framework, and learning abilities. System-level analysis reveals the actual psychological mechanisms of mastering the activity of learning. This concept has a universal character and can be equally successfully used both for the analysis of educational activities and for professional ones. A specific person is at the center of learning, and the analysis system provides for the study of abilities, interests, goals, characteristics of mental processes and personality traits. This approach found particular significance in the implementation of the principle of individualization of education.

The main provisions of the system genetic approach introduced into the psychology of learning are as follows:

Disclosure of the mechanisms of teaching at the procedural level;

Formation in the course of the activity of the teaching of the system of abilities. The presence of a certain level of giftedness in each child;

Individual approach to the child.

As already mentioned, the activity and system genetic approaches do not contradict each other, but complement each other. Modern psychology of learning harmoniously combines the achievements of various concepts, realizing them in a variety of practical learning technologies.

Correlation between methodological approaches and learning objectives

These approaches provide a scientific methodological basis for solving practical problems of optimizing educational activities. However, the actual solution of real practical problems is carried out through psychologically oriented methodological models and technologies introduced into the practice of education. Let us consider some specific groups identified according to the main psychological content, i.e. according to those psychological mechanisms, patterns or phenomena that underlie the theory.

A group of "formative" theories. IN it includes the whole variety of scientific and practical developments (concepts, models), which are based on the management of the learning process, the formation of learning activities and mental actions. An example of such a theory is the theory of P.Ya. Galperin

Theory P.Ya. Galperin . A well-known theory based on learning action is the theory "stage-by-stage formation of mental action", proposed by P.Ya. Galperin. In this theory, the development of intelligence is associated with a purposeful system of actions and operations. The concept of P.Ya. Galperin was called upon to provide management of the learning process.

Under normal conditions, information processing is carried out in the "forecast field". This means that mental activity must necessarily include an assessment and analysis of what is and what can be. Mental activity is defined in this case as a complex systemic structure of a mental act, including information, motivation, the actual operation and personal attitude. The formation of mental activity is, first of all, the creation of conditions for its development. The basic concepts of the "theory of the phased formation of mental actions" were formulated by P.Ya. Galperin back in 1956. Since that time, the theory has been constantly developed. IN modern version the concept of P.Ya. Galperin is based on the principle of a hierarchical system. The formation of a system of mental actions in a person is based on three basic subsystems.

First subsystem orientation, i.e., information features that the student must rely on to perform the required operation. This subsystem provides the student with complete orientation in a problem situation. Orientation in a problem situation includes an idea of the final result, the conditions for its achievement, the means and control of achieving the final result. As a result of such representations, the student develops a subsystem of orientation in that action or the conditions for its implementation, which is provoked by educational activity. The student is given units of mental activity, with the help of which he will be able to construct images and objects of reality.

Second subsystem interiorization. This subsystem ensures the transfer of action to the mental plane. It includes a summary description of the transformations that need to be made in order for an action to turn from sensorimotor to mental. Such a construction is a kind of normative standard of action and includes six stages:

1st stage. Formation of the motivational basis for action. At this stage, the student's attitude to the action itself, its subjective meaning, is determined;

2nd stage. Formation of the scheme of the orienting basis of action. The student perceives the normative standard of action in the form of special knowledge and forms a system of necessary and sufficient information signs of the action, allowing him to orient himself in the content and sequence of the mastered action;

3rd stage. Formation of materialized action. A child cannot perform a new action for himself immediately mentally. First, he needs to carry it out as an externally mediated action. The more complex it is, the more difficult the materialization. If the action had analogues in the student's past experience, then there may be very few materialized components, but they never "fade away." The most typical form of materialization is the plan of action. It consistently fixes the images of operations to perform an action;

4th stage. Formation of action in terms of socialized speech. All components of the action must be described in words - verbalized. The degree of development of verbalization depends on age, speech development, on the possibility of describing a specific element of the action;

5th stage. Formation of action in external speech "to oneself". This is an intermediate stage. The student, performing the action "to himself", pronounces all the main components of the action. But the inner speech has a detailed form and is “consonant” with the outer speech. At this stage, the external supports of the action disappear and are replaced by symbols (words). According to Vygotsky, the “sign genesis” takes place;

6th stage. Formation of mental action in the inner plane. From oral speech, the student proceeds to the mental implementation of the action and the verbalization of the direct result. Verbal supports collapse, and the elements of action pass to the subconscious level of control. There is a formation of mental action.

Third subsystem control. To effectively perform a mental action, all of its elements must be constantly monitored. To do this, you need to ask the student different situations of its implementation. Performing the required action, the child forms the criteria for evaluating its essential components, which become the basis of the control subsystem, which turns into self-control of mental action.

As a result of the formation of all these subsystems, a subjective task occurs optimal conditions to build mental action.

Group of "intellectual" theories combines concepts, technologies, models, the basis of which is the formation of the child's intellectual experience, the development of thinking. A prime example is the theory of V.V. Davydova - D.B. Elkonin.

Theory V.V. Davydov - D.B. Elkonin. Strictly speaking, in this case we are dealing not with one theory, but with a number of conceptual provisions developed at different times by D.B. Elkonin and V.V. Davydov, but so harmoniously complementing each other, scientifically soundly fitting into practice, that today a single concept has axiomatically developed.

The main theses of the theory are based on the methodological postulate of L.S. Vygotsky about the leading role of development. Development dynamics revealed in the doctrine of age periodization of development, developed by D.B. Elkonin. To each age period corresponds to a special leading activity, which causes major changes in the personality. He revealed the connection between the period of development, the system of typical social relations of the child and the level of knowledge and abilities. As a result of such relationships, the child acquires rich theoretical and empirical experience from an early age. However, the latter is not obvious and in most cases is not used by the school. The potential of the child is much higher than its implementation in school practice. The task arises to intensify the activity of teaching, to improve the methods of organizing training.

Such improvement is provided, according to V.V. Davydov, development special mental actions(ways). Ways of thinking are divided into two large groups: rational(empirical) and reasonable(dialectic). Dialectical methods provide the development of abstractions, theoretical knowledge. They are higher level than empirical methods. Based on the conceptual provisions of L.S. Vygotsky on the role of symbolic operations (“actions with signs”) in development, V.V. Davydov postulates the idea of the primary formation of abstract concepts (systems of symbols), through which concrete empirical knowledge is known.

ascent from abstract to concrete becomes a universal principle of mastering educational material. In accordance with this theory, the mastering of the subject goes in a spiral from the abstract-general center to particular peripheral ideas. Thus establishing an essential and universal connection, the child finds a common genetic basis for all particular manifestations. This activity is based on generalizations - the most important operation of mental activity in learning. It aims to address specific "learning tasks" the essence of which is to master the generalized methods of action, focused on the general relations of the mastered subject area. This provides developmental learning. In the course of such activities, the child activates and forms a cognitive need and corresponding motivation. The child behaves as an active subject of cognition, realizing himself as a unique personality.

A group of "personal" theories. Modern teaching practice requires putting the personality of the student at the center of activity. A group of theories is aimed at this, the core of which is the general development of the personality of children. This direction is called humanistic. An example is the model of organization of the educational process proposed by Sh.A. Amonashvili.

Theory of Sh.A. Amonashvili . The theory of the famous Georgian teacher Sh.A. Amonashvili is in the full sense of the word a psychological and pedagogical technology. A purely practical approach to the humanization of school education allowed Sh.A. Amonashvili to create provisions based on the thesis about the combination of the child's learning experience with the formation of his moral attitudes. This is the result of the joint activity of the teacher and the student. Each moral situation that arises in a group of children is analyzed and “lived through” in the school of Sh.A. Amonashvili with the whole class together with the teacher. One of the goals of educational activity is a spiritual community between the teacher and his students, the restructuring of the child's internal attitudes towards the process of self-knowledge and self-development. For the formation of the student's personal uniqueness, according to Sh.A. Amonashvili, it is necessary to give him faith in himself, in his abilities. A child in school should be surrounded by love, affection, respect and wisdom from, above all, the teacher.

The theory of collective way of learning (CSE) V.K. Dyachenko. This concept was at one time an attempt to radically solve the main problems of traditional school education: the lack of an individual approach to the student, the inadequacy in assessing the cognitive abilities of the student, the passivity and low independence of children in the classroom, the use of irrational teaching methods. According to the author, the concept of CSR is free from these shortcomings.

The main attention in CSR is focused on the concepts of "team" and "collective learning". Dyachenko gives the following definition: “only such training can be called collective, in which the team trains and educates each of its members, and each member actively participates in the training and education of their comrades in joint educational work.” It is on this principle that CSR training is built. Each student in the class performs the functions of both student and teacher during classes. The structural unit of this form of organization is communication students in pairs of mixed composition, which change during the lesson. It should be said that communication in CSR is the dominant mechanism of interaction both in terms of time and content. The immediate goal of each participant in the classes is to teach the other through communication everything that he knows and studies himself. A participant in the class can present each topic being studied to other students, working with each in turn until a complete, lasting and comprehensive mastery of the issue. As a result, everyone is responsible not only for their own knowledge and educational success, but also for the knowledge and success of their fellow students. In the CSR technique, according to the authors, there is a complete coincidence of collective and personal interests: the more and better I teach another, the more and better I know myself. The main task of the teacher is the organization and management of the CSR process.

Theory of A.M. Matyushkin. The theory of problem-based learning is based on the idea of shaping the cognitive activity of a person through the creation of appropriate didactic and psychological conditions. This can be achieved only if learning is understood as a personality-mediated process of interaction between a teacher and a student within the framework of self-actualization and cooperation. According to the author of the concept, the defining concepts are "task" and "problem situation". The task is understood as a specifically set goal in the system of relevant conditions, i.e. it must include the goal of the decision, the present conditions of the situation, and the question of how to achieve the said goal. When a student faces such a task, he perceives it as a problem situation. Problematic situation, according to A.M. Matyushkin, is characterized as an active mental state that occurs in a person when performing a task under the conditions of the subjective discovery of "new knowledge". Thus, the core of the problem situation becomes unknown new knowledge, which the student must actually discover for himself in order to achieve the goal. To solve this problem, the student needs to use special actions to search for the necessary knowledge, its logical connections and generalization of information. The essence of problem-based learning, therefore, comes down to active mental processing of the task and independent conclusion. The role of the teacher is to correct the actions of the student. The process of problem-based learning includes two stages:

Statement and assimilation of the problem situation;

Search for the unknown in a problem situation (the main link in problem-based learning).

The second stage is carried out by the student independently or with the help of a teacher. However, the role of the teacher is reduced to creating conditions that contribute to the creation of the student's need to search for new knowledge. In the conditions of school education, the problematic organization of educational activities imitates the conditions of creative search and forms students' creative abilities and creative thinking. Such activity develops students' interest, satisfaction with the educational process, activation of the need for self-actualization and, in general, forms a creative personality.

Another type of activation of the educational process, which arose independently of problem-based learning, was expressed in the emergence of the so-called active teaching methods developed in psychology and using objective mechanisms and patterns of development of the psyche. As in problem-based learning, the main idea is the idea of the activity of the individual in learning. Active learning methods - these are accelerated learning methods aimed primarily at developing and improving the mental skills and personal abilities of the student necessary for the implementation of educational activities. When using active methods, the development of knowledge proceeds as a process of interaction between the student and the teacher. All forms of active methods used in the practice of school education can be divided into two groups:

First group. Active forms of traditional ways of learning. This is a group of methods, techniques, techniques developed in pedagogy and didactics, aimed at enhancing the process of mastering knowledge.

An example is the specific versions of lessons developed in the 1970s. at the Faculty of Pedagogical Training LPI them. A.I. Herzen, in particular "BIT-lesson", or integrated a lesson that includes three interrelated elements: conversation, play, creativity. The teacher conducts a preliminary conversation with the students on the topic of the lesson, explains the goals, creates the necessary motivation, emotional tone of the lesson, introduces the materials of the supporting notes. Then there is a group game-relay race. The final part of the lesson includes the task of creatively applying the acquired knowledge. The main advantage of the BIT lesson is its mobility, developmental nature and entertainment for students. No less interesting are the lessons “Where? What? When?"; "Lessons-disputes"; microseminars (preparation, communication, generalization and analysis of the assimilation of knowledge is carried out in one lesson); practice lesson (the teacher allows students to independently develop a project that ensures the integrated use of knowledge and skills. For example, “how to improve the appearance of the school yard?”); and so on.

Significantly increase the cognitive interest of students "didactic games" - special forms of classes, which, including educational content, are implemented in a playful way. These are various crossword puzzles, games in "fables", games "yes-no", mnemonic games, intellectual games, etc.

Second group. Actually active teaching methods. This group includes methods developed in psychology in order to activate the personality in educational activities, reduce the pressure of stereotypes, develop the ability to understand the essence of problems, form the skills to manage one's emotions and make decisions in suboptimal conditions.

The main task of training in this case is the formation of creative abilities. Such methods include, for example, "brainstorm"(or “brainstorming”, brainstorming), developed by A.F. Osborne. Pedagogical modification proposed by G.S. Altshuller. When using this method, a collective solution of an extraordinary problem occurs. The creative process is actually divided into two consecutive operations: the generation of ideas and the criticism of ideas. Accordingly, the students are divided into "generators" and "critics". The students are formulated a creative task and the group of “generators” is invited to formulate as many solutions as possible in a limited time. Any solutions, the most fantastic ones, are encouraged. Then all the proposed ideas are analyzed by "critics". As a result, the most optimal solution to the problem is chosen. There are adapted ways of working at each stage and for each role. Another method is "synectic". With this method, the conditions of the problem are studied and critically evaluated according to the principle “the problem as it is given” - “the problem as it is understood”. Synectics includes four stages:

1) processing the conditions of the problem, generating and combining ideas; 2) applying various analogies; 3) choosing a solution and determining the sequence of operations; 4) making a final decision.

Method of analysis of specific situations. The method is based on the analysis of specific situations-cases. Four types of such situations are singled out: situation-illustration; situation-exercise; situation-assessment; situation is a problem. The situations used for training must meet a number of requirements: 1. the situation must be based on very real events; 2. situations should be interesting; 3. the material underlying a particular case should be instructive.

Incident method . The incident method session begins with the teacher briefly introducing the students to some case (incident) that happened to their peers. Only the teacher has full information about the incident. After a brief introduction, students should ask the teacher as many questions as possible to get more information. Then they independently or in groups analyze the incident: they formulate the problem and make a decision.

Business game. In recent decades, innovative and business games have become increasingly popular in the practice of schooling. Both those and others are aimed at self-disclosure of the individual, but innovative - to a greater extent emphasize the creative potential of the student, and business - model systems of relationships. Game method - this is a form of recreating the social and objective content of reality, in which the student learns knowledge that is abstract in nature, consolidates skills and abilities in the real process of preparing and making a decision. The most commonly used game is improvisation. Its peculiarity is that students know the main plot, the nature of their role, while the game itself takes place in the form of improvisation. In order for the game to successfully perform the learning task, a number of conditions must be met. The game should have a common and understandable theme for all participants. The course of the game is coordinated by the leader group, nominated from among the participants. The presence of a leader to remove possible conflicts is also the most important condition. In the game group, it is necessary to maintain a favorable moral and psychological climate. The game must not contain a threat, i.e. have a final assessment on the basis of "right-wrong", "good-bad". The game must be prepared in advance and carried out under the guidance of a professional presenter. The fulfillment of these and some other conditions, the possession of game modeling technologies allows you to get the maximum effect when using this method, not only in terms of training, but also the implementation of educational goals.

Theory of suggestopedia . One of the modern theories based on the works of V.M. Bekhterev and based on the use of emotional mechanisms of non-critical perception of information. Suggestopedia - learning by method immersion, suggestion. This theory is based on the development of an active teaching method with elements of relaxation, suggestion and play. Training with this method relieves a form of pressure such as grade. Everything is based on receiving a message from the teacher through suggestion. Through special techniques, psychological protection is removed and the possibilities of the inspiring influence of the word are expanded. In the waking state, a significant sharpening of memory is provided, an increase in the volume of activated information, an increase in the speed of memorization and reproduction. There are a number of conditions for the implementation of this method. Of the most important:

1) the unconditional authority of the teacher; 2) the unambiguity of the wording of the suggestion; 3) the expressiveness of the teaching materials; 4) relaxation, trust in the teacher and faith in the possibility of fulfilling the tasks of learning; 5) the influence of the success of group mates; 6) the two-dimensionality of the transfer of new material.

Words and phrases that carry a semantic load (one plan) are accompanied by emotionally colored gestures, intonation, facial expressions (second plan).

Suggestopedia creates a favorable emotional background, helps students overcome disbelief in their own strength.

Theory of Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) . NLP was developed in the 80s. 20th century American psychologists John Grinder and Richard Bandler. According to the authors, NLP is a technology of the educational process, a way to provoke and manage human learning. NLP is concerned with the subjective experience of the processes by which people learn. The classic principle of traditional schooling is to "transmit a certain amount of information to students." According to the developers of NLP, this principle should be changed to "organization of subjective experience to include mechanisms for receiving and processing information." To do this, a number of techniques developed in NLP are used, thanks to which sequences are formed at the neural level that associatively link the necessary educational information with personally significant and emotionally attractive signs, factors, words. As a result, there are neuro-linguistic subjective structures. Depending on the modality involved, structures can be visual, auditory, kinesthetic images. Accordingly, all people can be divided into:

Visuals (visual type);

Audials (auditory type);

Kinestikov (motor type);

Digitalov (thinking type).

A group of alternative theories. Throughout the existence of the mass school, there have been repeated attempts to formulate fundamentally new approaches to the organization of the educational process. These are numerous "author's schools", in which the specifics of the organization of education is based on the unique authority of the personality of a particular teacher. This also includes approaches that seek to restructure the system of tasks facing schooling from cognitive and informational to spiritual and personality-forming. An example is the concept of the Waldorf school.

Waldorf School R. Steiner . The Waldorf school refers to alternative learning technologies, the main task of which is to provide the child with conditions for self-education and self-education. The concept of the Waldorf school is based on the idea of the spiritual formation of the child, moral development as the main task of the education system. Attention is primarily drawn to the development of the child's norms of moral behavior. As in other alternative technologies, learning goes through the formation of a single worldview system in the mind of the child. A teacher is first and foremost a friend and senior comrade. Lessons are built as a natural process of learning the world. For example, children are told some story from a child's life that has a moral meaning, and then everyone discusses it together. On natural objects and events familiar to children, knowledge of physics, mathematics or natural science is revealed. The mechanisms of association, generalization, comparison and opposition are actively used. As a result, the child receives scientific and practical information in a natural form, he does not have to make strenuous efforts to understand and remember the knowledge received.

The relationship between the concepts of "learning", "teaching" and "learning"

Doctrineis defined as the learning of a person as a result of purposeful, conscious appropriation by him of the transmitted (translated) socio-cultural (socio-historical) experience and the individual experience formed on this basis. Therefore, teaching is considered as a kind of learning.
Education in the most common sense of this term, it means a purposeful, consistent transfer (transmission) of socio-cultural (socio-historical) experience to another person in specially created conditions. From a psychological and pedagogical point of view, learning is seen as managing the process of accumulating knowledge, forming cognitive structures, as organizing and stimulating a student's educational and cognitive activity.

In addition, the concept of "learning" and "teaching" is equally applicable to humans and animals, in contrast to the concept of "teaching". In foreign psychology, the concept of "learning" is used as an equivalent of "learning". If "teaching" and "teaching" denote the process of acquiring individual experience, then the term "learning" describes both the process itself and its result.
Scientists interpret this triad of concepts in different ways. For example, the points of view of A.K. Markova and N.F. Talyzina are.

A.K. Markov:

o considers learning as an acquisition of individual experience, but first of all pays attention to the automated level of skills;

o interprets learning from a generally accepted point of view - as a joint activity of a teacher and a student, ensuring the assimilation of knowledge by students and mastering the methods of acquiring knowledge;

o teaching is presented as a student's activity in assimilating new knowledge and mastering ways of acquiring knowledge.

N.F. Talyzina adheres to the interpretation of the concept of "learning" that existed in the Soviet period - the application of the concept under consideration exclusively to animals; learning is considered by it only as the activity of the teacher in organizing the pedagogical process, and teaching - as the activity of the student included in the educational process.
Thus, the psychological concepts of "learning", "teaching", "learning" cover a wide range of phenomena associated with the acquisition of experience, knowledge, skills, abilities in the process of active interaction of the subject with the objective and social world - in behavior, activity, communication.
The acquisition of experience, knowledge and skills occurs throughout the life of an individual, although this process proceeds most intensively during the period of reaching maturity. Consequently, the learning processes coincide in time with the development, maturation, mastery of the forms of group behavior of the object of study, and in humans - with socialization, the development of cultural norms and values, and the formation of personality.
So, learning/teaching/teaching - this is the process of acquiring by the subject of new ways of carrying out behavior and activities, their fixation and / or modification. The most general concept denoting the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization in the conditions of the Earth) is "learning". Teaching a person as a result of purposeful, conscious appropriation of the socio-historical experience transmitted to him and the individual experience formed on this basis is defined as teaching.

Theories of learning.

T. n. strive to systematize the available facts about learning in the simplest and most logical way and direct the efforts of researchers in the search for new and important facts. In the case of T. n., these facts are associated with conditions that cause and maintain a change in behavior as a result of the body's acquisition of individual experience. Despite the fact that some differences between T. n. caused by variations in the degree of importance they attach to certain facts, most of the differences are due to disagreements about how the best way interpret the totality of the available facts. Theoret. an approach that calls itself an experiment. analysis of behavior, trying to systematize the facts on a purely behavioral level, without k.-l. appeal to hypothetical processes or physiology. manifestations. However, pl. theorists do not agree with the interpretations of learning, which are limited only to the behavioral level. Three things are often mentioned in this connection. First, the time interval between behavior and its premises can be quite large. To fill this gap, some theorists have proposed the existence of hypothetical phenomena such as memory habits or processes that mediate the observed premise and subsequent actions. Second, we often behave in different ways in conditions that outwardly look like the same situation. In these cases, unobservable states of the organism, often referred to as motivations, are invoked as hypothetical explanations for the observed differences in behavior. Finally, thirdly, a complex evolutionary and individual history of development makes it possible for highly organized reactions to appear in the absence of observable intermediate, transitional forms of behavior. In such circumstances, the previous external conditions necessary for the emergence of a habit, and the events that occur between the occurrence of a problem and the appearance of a response to it, are inaccessible to observation. In conditions of limited knowledge about events that precede the observed behavior, and a lack of knowledge about intermediate physiologists. and nervous processes, unobservable cognitive processes are involved in order to explain behavior. Owing to these three circumstances, the majority of T. n. suggest the existence of unobservable processes - usually called intermediate variables - which wedged between observable environmental events and behavioral manifestations. However, these theories differ as to the nature of these intermediate variables. Although T. n. consider a wide range of topics, this discussion will focus on one topic: the nature of reinforcement. Experimental analysis of behavior In behavior analysis, two procedures are recognized by which behavior change can be induced: respondent conditioning and operant conditioning. With respondent conditioning - more often called in other theories. contexts by classical or Pavlovian conditioning - an indifferent stimulus is regularly followed by another stimulus that already causes a reaction. As a result of this sequence of events, the first, previously ineffective, stimulus begins to produce a reaction, which may bear a strong resemblance to the reaction caused by the second stimulus. Although respondent conditioning plays an important role in learning, especially in emotional responses, most learning is related to operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, a response is followed by a specific reinforcement. The response on which this reinforcer depends is called an operant because it acts on the environment to elicit the given reinforcer. Operant conditioning is thought to play a more important role in humans. behavior, since, by gradually modifying the reaction, reinforcement is associated with a cut, new and more complex operants can be developed. This process is called operant generation. In the experiment In the analysis of behavior developed by B. F. Skinner, reinforcement is simply an irritant, which, when included in the system of connections determined by the use of the respondent or operant procedures, increases the likelihood of the behavior being formed in the future. Skinner studied the value of reinforcement for humans. behavior in a much more systematic way than any other theorist. In his analysis, he tried to avoid the introduction of c.-l. new processes that are inaccessible to observation in the conditions of laboratory experiments on animal learning. His explanation of complex behavior rested on the assumption that the often observable and subtle behaviors of humans follow the same principles as fully observable behaviors. Theories of Intermediate Variables supplemented the Skinner experiment. analysis of environmental and behavioral variables by intermediate variables. Intermediate variables yav-Xia theoret. constructs, the value of which is determined through their relationship with a variety of environmental variables, whose general effects they are designed to summarize. Tolman's expectation theory. Thorndike, influenced by Darwin's premise of the continuity of evolution biologist. species, began the transition to a less mentalistic psychology. John B. Watson completed it with a complete rejection of mentalistic concepts. Acting in line with the new thinking, Tolman replaced the old speculative mentalistic concepts with logically defined intermediate variables. As far as the subject of our discussion is concerned, here Tolman did not follow Thorndike's example. Thorndike considered the consequences of the response to be of the utmost importance in strengthening the association between stimulus and response. He called this the law of the effect, which was the forerunner of the modern. reinforcement theory. Tolman believed that the consequences of the reaction do not affect learning as such, but only the external expression of the processes underlying learning. The need to distinguish between learning and performance arose in the course of attempts to interpret the results of experiments on latent learning. As the theory has developed, the name of Tolman's intermediate learning variable has been changed several times, but the most appropriate name would probably be expectation. Anticipation depended solely on the temporal sequence—or contiguity—of events in the environment, not on the consequences of the response. Physiological theory of Pavlov. For Pavlov, as for Tolman, the contiguity of events was a necessary and sufficient condition for learning. These events are physiologist. are presented by the processes proceeding in those areas of a bark of a brain, to-rye are activated by indifferent and unconditioned irritants. The evolutionary consequences of the learned reaction were recognized by Pavlov, but not tested in experiments. conditions, so their role in learning has remained unclear. Molecular theory of Gasri. Like Tolman and Pavlov, and unlike Thorndike, Edwin R. Gazry considered contiguity to be a sufficient condition for learning. However, coincident events were not determined by such broad events in the environment as Tolman claimed. Each molar environmental event, according to Gasri, consists of many molecular stimulus elements, to-rye he called signals. Each molar behavior, which Gasri called "action", in turn consists of many molecular reactions, or "movements". If the signal is combined in time with the movement, this movement becomes completely conditioned by this signal. Behavioral action learning develops slowly only because most actions require learning many of their component movements in the presence of many specific cues. Hull's drive reduction theory. The use of intermediate variables in learning theory reached its widest development in the work of Clark L. Hull. Hull made an attempt to develop a common interpretation of the behavioral changes resulting from both classical and operant procedures. Both the conjugation of stimulus and response and the reduction of drive were included as necessary components in Hull's concept of reinforcement. Fulfillment of learning conditions affects the formation of an intermediate variable - habits. Habit was defined by Hull as a theory. a construct summarizing the overall effect of a set of situational variables on a set of behavioral variables. Relationships between situational variables and an intermediate variable, and further between habit and behavior, were expressed in the form of algebraic equations. Despite the use in formulating some of his intermediate variables, the physiologist. terms, experiment. research and Hull's theory were exclusively concerned with the behavioral level of analysis. Kenneth W. Spence, Hull's collaborator, who made a significant contribution to the development of his theory, was especially thorough in defining intermediate variables in purely logical terms. Subsequent development Although none of these theories of intermediate variables retained their significance in the second half of the 20th century, the subsequent development of T. n. influenced by two key features. All subsequent theories, as a rule, relied on mat. apparatus and considered a strictly defined range of phenomena - that is, they were "miniature" theories. Hull's theory was the first step towards creating a quantitative theory of behavior, but its algebraic equations served only to briefly formulate the basics. concepts. The first ones are really mate. T. n. were developed by Estes. Dr. quantitative theories, instead of using probability theory and math. statistics, relied mainly on the theory of information processing. or computer models. Within the framework of theories of intermediate variables, the most significant contribution to the development of the reinforcement principle was made by empirical research. Leona Karnin and related theorists. works by Robert Rescola and Alan R. Wagner. In the procedure of classical conditioning, an indifferent stimulus combined with c.-l. other effective reinforcement, does not acquire control over the reaction if an indifferent stimulus is accompanied by another stimulus, which already causes this reaction. At the behavioral level, a certain discrepancy between the response elicited by the reinforcer and the response that occurs during the presentation of this indifferent stimulus must be complemented by similarity if learning is to occur. In addition, the nature of this discrepancy must be precisely determined. In terms of experiments. behavior analysis theoret. work mzh acquired more mat. character, although ch. arr. deterministic rather than probabilistic systems. Theoret. research here they developed in the direction from the analysis of a single reinforced reaction to many others. reinforced responses and the interaction of reinforced responses with other responses. In the broadest sense, these theories describe various reinforcers as causes that cause a redistribution of the body's responses within the range of possible behavioral alternatives. The redistribution that has taken place minimizes the change in the current reaction up to the establishment of a new operant contingency and is sensitive to the instantaneous value of the reinforcement probability for each reaction. There are reasons to believe that the work carried out by representatives of the theory of intermediate variables in the field of classical conditioning and experiments. analysts in the field of operant conditioning, leads to a common understanding of reinforcement, in which behavior is modified in order to minimize the network of discrepancies associated with the action of all excitatory stimuli present in a given environment.

Types of learning in humans

1. Learning by mechanism imritinga , i.e. rapid, automatic adaptation of the organism to the specific conditions of its life using forms of behavior practically ready from birth. The presence of imriting unites a person with animals that have a developed central nervous system. For example, as soon as a newborn touches the mother's breast, he immediately manifests an innate sucking reflex. As soon as a mother duck appears in the field of view of a newborn duckling and begins to move in a certain direction, so, standing on its own paws, the chick automatically begins to follow her everywhere. This - instinctive(i.e., unconditionally reflex) forms of behavior, they are quite plastic for a certain, usually very limited, period (“critical” period), subsequently they are not very amenable to change.

2. Conditioned Reflex Learning - a conditioned stimulus is associated by the body with the satisfaction of the corresponding needs. Subsequently, conditioned stimuli begin to play a signal or indicative role. For example, a word as some combination of sounds. Associated with the selection in the field of view or holding an object in the hand, it can acquire the ability to automatically call up in the mind of a person the image of this object or movement aimed at searching for it.

3. operant learning Knowledge, skills and abilities are acquired by the so-called trial and error method. This type of learning was identified by the American behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner in addition to conditioned reflex learning. Operant learning is based on active actions ("operations") of the organism in the environment. If some spontaneous action turns out to be useful for achieving the goal, it is reinforced by the achieved result. A pigeon, for example, can be taught to play ping-pong if the game becomes a means of obtaining food. Operant learning is implemented in the system of programmed learning and in the token system of psychotherapy.

4. vicarious learning - learning through direct observation of the behavior of other people, as a result of which a person immediately accepts and assimilates the observed forms of behavior. This type of learning is partially represented in higher animals, such as monkeys.

5. verbal learning - the acquisition of new experience by a person through language. In this case, we mean learning, carried out in a symbolic form through a variety of sign systems. For example, symbolism in physics, mathematics, computer science, musical literacy.

The first, second and third types of learning are characteristic of both animals and humans, and the fourth and fifth - only for humans.

If the learning conditions are specifically organized, created, then such an organization of learning is called learning. Training is broadcast a person of certain knowledge, skills, abilities. Knowledge, skills and abilities are the forms and results of reflective and regulatory processes in the human psyche. Therefore, they can arise in a person's head only as a result of his own activities, i.e. as a result of the mental activity of the student.

Thus, education - the process of interaction between the teacher (teacher) and the student (student), as a result of which the student develops certain knowledge, skills and abilities.

Knowledge, skills and abilities will be formed only if the influence of the teacher causes a certain physical and mental activity.

Teaching (learning activity)- this is a special type of cognitive activity of the subject, performed in order to acquire a certain composition of knowledge, skills, intellectual skills.

The structure of learning activities.

Target- mastery of the content and methods of teaching, enrichment of the child's personality, i.e. the assimilation of scientific knowledge and relevant skills.

motives- this is what encourages learning, overcoming difficulties in the process of mastering knowledge; a stable internal psychological reason for behavior, actions, activities.

Classification of motives for teaching:

Social : the desire to acquire knowledge, to be useful to society, the desire to earn the praise of the teacher, the desire to earn the respect of comrades, the avoidance of punishment.

cognitive : orientation to mastering new knowledge, orientation to the learning process (the child finds pleasure in activity in this type of activity, even if it does not immediately bring certain results), result orientation (the child tries in the lesson to get "10", although the subject itself he is not interested).

Emotional: emotional interest.

What are the main motives learning activities of six-year-olds? Research shows that dominance children of this age have motives for learning that lie outside the educational activity itself. Most children are attracted by the opportunity to fulfill their needs in recognition, communication, self-affirmation. At first school year the motives associated with the very knowledge, teaching, have little weight. But by the end of the school year, there are more children with this type of learning motivation (obviously, under the pedagogical influence of a teacher, educator). However, the researchers warn: it is too early to calm down. Cognitive motives six-year-olds are still extremely unstable, situational. They need constant, but indirect, unobtrusive reinforcement.

It is important for the teacher to maintain and increase the interest of children in school. It is important for him to know what motives are most significant for the child at this stage in order to build his education with this in mind. Recall that an educational goal that is not related to motives that are relevant to the child, that does not affect his soul, is not kept in his mind, is easily replaced by other goals that are more consonant with the child's habitual motives.

Since at the age of six, the internal, cognitive motivation for learning is just being formed and the will (so necessary in learning) is not yet sufficiently developed, it is advisable to maintain the maximum variety of motives for learning (its polymotivation) when teaching children at school. Children need to be motivated- playful, competitive, prestigious, etc. - and emphasize it to a greater extent than is currently done in teaching six-year-olds.

learning task- this is what the child must master.

Learning action- these are changes in the educational material necessary for the child to master it, this is what the child must do in order to discover the properties of the subject that he is studying.

Learning action is formed on the basis of mastering ways of teaching (operational side of the doctrine) – these are practical and mental actions with the help of which the student masters the content of the teaching and at the same time applies the acquired knowledge in practice.

Practical actions - (actions with objects) - with images of objects, diagrams, tables and models, with handouts

mental actions : perceptual, mnemonic, mental (analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification, etc.), reproductive - according to given patterns, methods (reproducing), productive - creating a new one (carried out according to independently formed criteria, own programs, new ways, new a combination of means), verbal - a reflection of the material in the word (designation, description, statement, repetition of words and statements), i.e. performing an action in a speech form, imaginative (aimed at creating images of the imagination).

To learn successfully, a child needs certain skills (automated ways to perform actions) and skills (a combination of knowledge and skills that ensure the successful performance of an activity). Among them - specific skills and abilities necessary for certain lessons (addition, subtraction, phoneme selection, reading, writing, drawing, etc.). But along with them, special attention should be paid to generalized skills that are needed in any lesson, lesson. These skills will be fully developed later, but their beginnings appear already at preschool age.

Action of control (self-control) - this is an indication of whether the child correctly performs an action corresponding to the model. This action should be performed not only by the teacher. Moreover, he must specifically teach the child to control his actions, not only according to their final result, but also in the course of achieving it.

Assessment action (self-assessment)- determination of whether the student has achieved the result or not. Result educational activity can be expressed by: the need to continue learning, interest, satisfaction from learning or unwillingness to learn, negative attitude towards the educational institution, avoidance of studies, non-attendance at classes, leaving the educational institution.

Learning and its main components. Learnability – this is a set of fairly stable and widely manifested features of the child's cognitive activity, which determine success, i.e. speed and ease of assimilation of knowledge and mastery of methods of teaching.

Precise and short: the subject of the psychology of learning studies the development of cognitive activity in the context of systematic learning.

This definition reveals the psychological essence of the educational process. Research in this area today is aimed at identifying: the relationship of external and internal factors that determine the differences in cognitive activity in the conditions of various didactic systems; correlation of motivational and intellectual plans of teaching; opportunities to manage the processes of learning and development of the child; psychological and pedagogical criteria for the effectiveness of training, etc.

The psychology of learning explores the process of assimilation of knowledge and adequate skills and abilities. Its task is to reveal the nature of this process, its characteristics and stages in all their originality, the conditions and criteria for a successful course. A special task of pedagogical psychology is the development of methods that allow diagnosing the level and quality of assimilation.

Studies of the learning process, carried out from the standpoint of the principles of Russian psychology, have shown that the process of assimilation is the performance by a person of certain actions or activities. Knowledge is assimilated as elements of these actions, and skills take place when the assimilated actions are brought to certain indicators according to some of their characteristics. Doctrine Here - it is a system of special actions necessary for students to go through the main stages of the assimilation process. The actions that make up the activity of learning are assimilated according to the same laws as any others. Modern research on the psychology of learning is aimed at identifying the patterns of formation and functioning of cognitive activity in the context of the current system of education. By the way, rich experimental material has already been accumulated, which reveals typical shortcomings in the assimilation of various scientific concepts by secondary school students, the role of students' life experience, the nature of the educational material presented in the assimilation of knowledge, etc. has been revealed. The process of learning in all its complexity, its age and individual characteristics, its specificity, depending on the content of the discipline studied by students, constitute the main subject of research in the psychology of learning. In accordance with this, the psychology of learning can be divided into general and special, dedicated to the psychology of teaching individual subjects: reading and writing, spelling and grammar, mathematics, geography, physics.

In its general part, the psychology of learning is in close contact with didactics, and in special sections, with particular methods. The main principle line of the psychology of learning is that it is aimed at revealing the changes that occur in the mental activity of students in the learning process: the transition from ignorance to knowledge, the successive stages or stages through which the student passes, mastering knowledge, skills, those methods or techniques by which tasks are performed, those qualitative shifts that occur in mental operations or mental actions in the course of training. The central place in the problems of the psychology of learning is occupied by the study of the process of mastering knowledge. The process of assimilation of knowledge is studied in close connection with the study of the application of knowledge in practice, since the most important condition for genuine assimilation is the students' independent operation of the acquired knowledge. The application of knowledge, being an integral part of their assimilation, at the same time has its own specific features, since the student not only has to use the knowledge he has within the same academic subject, but also transfer the acquired knowledge and skills to other areas of science and new types of practical activities. These exercises in the transfer of knowledge, skills and abilities are carried out by students in those cases when they are faced with relatively new tasks-problems, which plays a significant role in the mental development of the student. The ratio of the processes of learning and development is one of the important theoretical problems psychology of learning. Education affects the mental development of students, can accelerate the passage of the corresponding stages of this development, or even modify their sequence. At the same time, the result and process of educational activity depend on the level of development already achieved by the student and his mastery of the methods of mental activity.

Research has shown that at proper organization learning can accelerate the formation of valuable properties of mental activity, for example, develop arbitrary forms of attention and memory in younger students, expand meaningful memorization at the expense of mechanical, weaken their imitation by developing elements of productive (creative, creative) thinking, and so on. It turns out that it is possible to significantly expand the cognitive abilities of children. In particular, it turns out that even relatively complex abstract material is successfully assimilated by younger students if it is introduced with a certain structure of the program and with appropriate teaching methods. At the same time, the nature of the assimilation of knowledge, the speed and ease with which they are assimilated, the breadth of their transfer to the solution of new problems are directly determined by the level of mental development of students, manifested in the qualities of mind formed in them: independence, criticality, and others, i.e. in certain personality traits.

The effectiveness of the assimilation of knowledge also depends on the attitude of the student to learning activities, on his motivation. The problem of learning motives is the most important component of the psychology of learning. Its study makes it possible to reveal the reasons that contribute to the assimilation of one educational material and oppose the assimilation of another. Related to this problem is the study of the role of teachers' evaluation (or the control device of the teaching machine) of the student's school achievements. Evaluation serves as a natural "reinforcement" (positive or negative) of the student's learning activities. Along with such “external” control, self-control and self-assessment are of great importance, when the student independently controls the progress of his work, comparing the result with the sample and, if necessary, correcting it.

When studying individual psychological differences in the learning process, both the features of motivation and cognitive interests and the features of mental activity characteristic of a particular student are taken into account. At the same time, the general mental development of the student, which directly affects his "learning ability", as well as his special abilities (mathematical, literary, etc.) is analyzed. Psychological research outlines ways for the development of special abilities, provided that they are combined with the comprehensive development of the student's personality, thereby creating the prerequisites for a differentiated approach to learning.

Intellectual processes have been studied most widely in the field of learning psychology. Identification of the patterns of assimilation of knowledge, skills and the formation of schoolchildren's "ability" to learn makes it possible to make practical proposals regarding improvement school programs and teaching methods. Less mastered are those issues of the psychology of learning that are borderline with the psychology of perception: the problem of stimulating learning activities, the formation of a scientific worldview, the transformation of knowledge into beliefs, and others.

For the further development of the psychology of learning, it is necessary to broadly develop the issues of the comprehensive development of the individual in the learning process, thereby bringing the two sections of educational psychology closer together. The use of the achievements of other sciences, primarily logic, is also essential: this is necessary for analyzing the structure of operations that serve as a standard of educational activity. The task of introducing the achievements of mathematics and computer technology requires research on the construction of educational algorithms, the development of diagnostic methods (to determine the degree of mastery of knowledge, skills and abilities by students and to assess the level of mental development they have achieved) based on the use of statistical methods.

To date, there are several concepts related to the acquisition by a person of life experience in the form of knowledge, skills, abilities, abilities. It is learning, learning, learning.

The most general concept is learning. Intuitively, at the everyday level, each of us imagines what learning is. Learning is said to be in the case when a person began to know and (or) be able to do something that he did not know and (or) did not know how to do before. These new knowledge, skills, and abilities may be the result of activities aimed at acquiring them, or, which often happens, act as a side effect of behavior that realizes goals that are not related to this knowledge and skills.

Learning, in a broad sense, denotes the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization in the conditions of the Earth). Such familiar and widespread concepts as evolution, development, survival, adaptation, selection, improvement, have some commonality, which is most fully expressed in the concept of learning, which resides in them explicitly or “by default”. The concept of development, or evolution, is impossible without the assumption that all these processes occur as a result of a change in the behavior of living beings. At present, the only scientific concept that fully embraces these changes is the concept of learning. Living beings learn new behaviors that enable them to survive more effectively. Everything that exists, adapts, survives, acquires new properties, and this happens according to the laws of learning - it turns out that survival mainly depends on the ability to learn. In foreign psychology, the concept of "learning" is often used as an equivalent of "learning". In domestic psychology (at least in the Soviet period) it was customary to use it in relation to animals. However, recently a number of scientists (I.A. Zimnyaya, V.N. Druzhinin, Yu.M. Orlov and others) have used this term in relation to humans. For a better understanding of the differences between learning, teaching and learning, we will use the classification of activities, as a result of which a person gains experience. All activities in which a person gains experience can be divided into two large groups: activities in which the cognitive effect is a by-product (additional) product, and activities in which the cognitive effect is its direct product.

Learning includes the acquisition of experience in all activities, regardless of its nature. In addition, the acquisition of experience as a by-product, depending on the regularity, can be stable, more or less permanent in certain types of activity, as well as random, episodic. The acquisition of experience as a stable by-product can take place in the process of spontaneous communication, in the game (if it is not organized by an adult specifically for the purpose of assimilating a child of some kind of experience). In all these activities (play, work, communication, intentional cognition), experience can also be acquired as an accidental by-product. The second large group of activities in which a person gains experience are those types that are consciously or unconsciously carried out for the sake of the experience itself. Let us first consider activities in which the acquisition of experience is carried out without setting an appropriate goal. Among them are the following types: didactic games, spontaneous communication and some other activities. All of them are characterized by the fact that, although the subject of acquiring experience does not set himself the goal of mastering this experience, he naturally and steadily receives it at the end of their process. At the same time, the cognitive result is the only rational justification for the expenditure of time and effort of the subject. At the same time, the really acting motive is shifted to the process of activity: a person communicates with others or plays because he enjoys the very process of communication or play. In addition to didactic play and spontaneous communication, the acquisition of experience as a direct product, but without a conscious goal, is also achieved in free observation, in the course of reading fiction, watching movies, plays, etc.

Discovery or assimilation becomes one of the most significant criteria for classifying the types of cognition. In turn, assimilation also implies two options: 1) when the experience is given in finished form, but the subject of assimilation must independently prepare all or some of the conditions that ensure the process of assimilation; 2) when he performs only the cognitive components of this activity, and the conditions for assimilation are prepared by other people. The last option is of the greatest interest, since it reflects the essential features of the phenomenon that takes place in any human society and consisting in the transfer by the older generation to the younger of the experience that this society has. This type of activity is teaching. Teaching is defined as the learning of a person as a result of purposeful, conscious appropriation of the transmitted (translated) socio-cultural (socio-historical) experience and the individual experience formed on this basis. Therefore, teaching can be considered as a kind of learning.

Education in the most common sense of this term, it means a purposeful, consistent transfer (transmission) of socio-cultural (socio-historical) experience to another person in specially created conditions. From a psychological and pedagogical point of view, learning is seen as managing the process of accumulating knowledge, forming cognitive structures, as organizing and stimulating a student's educational and cognitive activity.

In addition, the concepts of "learning" and "teaching" are equally applicable to humans and animals, in contrast to the concept of "learning". If "teaching" and "teaching" denote the process of acquiring individual experience, then the term "learning" describes both the process itself and its result.

Scientists interpret this triad of concepts in different ways.

A.K. Markova considers learning as the acquisition of individual experience, but, above all, pays attention to the automated level of skills; learning is interpreted from a generally accepted point of view - as a joint activity of a teacher and a student, ensuring the assimilation of knowledge by schoolchildren and mastering the methods of acquiring knowledge; teaching is presented as the student's activity in acquiring new knowledge and mastering the ways of acquiring knowledge 1 .

H. F. Talyzina adheres to the interpretation of the concept of "learning" that existed in the Soviet period - the application of the concept under consideration exclusively to animals; learning is considered by her only as the activity of the teacher in organizing the pedagogical process, and teaching - as the activity of the student included in the educational process.

Thus, the psychological concepts of "learning", "teaching", "teaching" cover a wide range of phenomena associated with the acquisition of experience, knowledge, skills, abilities in the process of active interaction of the subject with the objective and social world - in behavior, activity, communication. The acquisition of experience, knowledge and skills occurs throughout the life of an individual, although this process proceeds most intensively during the period of reaching maturity. Consequently, the learning processes coincide in time with the development, maturation, mastery of the forms of group behavior of the object of study, and in humans - with socialization, the development of cultural norms and values, and the formation of personality.

So, learning/teaching/teaching is a general process of acquiring by the subject of new ways of carrying out behavior and activities, fixing and/or modifying them.

Questions and tasks

I. What is the subject of the psychology of learning?

2. What is the essence of the main research tasks in the psychology of learning?
3. What is the main issue of the psychology of learning, what are its problems?
4. How is the relationship between the processes of learning and development carried out?
5. What determines the effectiveness of knowledge acquisition?
6. Prepare reports on the relationship between the concepts of learning / learning / teaching.
7. How is this ratio considered in domestic and foreign science?
8. Give a general idea of the classification of activities.
9. Prepare messages about the person's experience.
10. What characteristics of students should be taken into account when studying individual psychological differences in the learning process.

Orlov Yuri Mikhailovich (1928-2000) - Russian scientist, doctor of psychological sciences, candidate of philosophical sciences, practicing psychologist, creator of the theory and practice of sanogenic (healing) thinking (SHM).
Markova LK Psychology of teacher's work. M., 1993.
Talyzina N. F. Pedagogical psychology: Textbook, manual for students. avg. special, educational, institutions. - M.: Academy, 1998.

Plan:

1. Characteristics of concepts

2. Differences between learning, teaching and teaching. Mechanisms of learning.

3. Theories of learning.

1. Learning activities is a process in which a person acquires new or changes his existing knowledge, skills and abilities, improves and develops his abilities.

Such activity allows him to adapt to the world around him, navigate in it, more successfully and more fully satisfy his basic needs, including the needs of intellectual growth.

Education - involves the joint learning activities of the student and teacher, characterizes the process of transferring knowledge, skills, and, more broadly, life experience from teacher to student.

Education is a purposeful pedagogical process of organizing and stimulating active educational and cognitive activity of students in mastering scientific knowledge, skills and abilities, developing creative abilities, worldview and moral and aesthetic views (Kharlamov I.F. Pedagogy).

Essential features of the learning process(S. P. Baranov) |

Learning is a specially organized cognitive activity (as opposed to learning).

· Training - acceleration of knowledge in individual development.

· Learning is the assimilation of patterns fixed in the experience of mankind.

Learning as a process includes two parts:

· teaching, during which the transfer (transmission) of a system of knowledge, skills, experience of activity is carried out;

· doctrine as the assimilation of experience through its perception, comprehension, transformation and use.

The organization of training assumes that the teacher implements the following components:

Setting goals for educational work;

formation of students' needs in mastering the studied material;

Determining the content of the material to be mastered by students;

organization of educational and cognitive activities to master students
the material being studied;

making students' learning activities emotionally positive
character;

regulation and control of educational activities of students;

Evaluation of the results of students' activities.

EXAMPLE. When talking about learning, they focus on what the teacher does, on his specific functions in the learning process.

Doctrine - also refers to educational activity, but when using it in science, attention is drawn to the fact that it is in the composition of educational activity that the student has to share.

We are talking about the educational activities undertaken by the student, aimed at developing abilities, acquiring the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities!

Students carry out educational and cognitive activities, which in turn consist of the corresponding components:

awareness of the goals and objectives of training;

development and deepening of the needs and motives of educational and cognitive activity;

comprehension of the topic of new material and the main issues to be mastered;

Perception, comprehension and memorization of educational material;

application of knowledge in practice and subsequent repetition;

manifestation of emotional attitude and volitional efforts in educational and cognitive activity;

Self-control and making adjustments to educational and cognitive activities;

Self-assessment of the results of their educational and cognitive activities.

When they want to emphasize the result of the teaching, then use the notion learning .

It characterizes the fact that a person acquires new psychological qualities and properties in educational activities.

concept learning comes from the word "learn". And includes what an individual can really learn as a result of learning and teaching .

Teaching (short psych. Grooms dictionary) - the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, abilities. Sometimes learning understood as the result of learning, but differs from learning as the acquisition of experience in activity. It contributes to the acquisition of any experience and includes an unconscious understanding of the material and its consolidation.

But most importantly : not everything related to development can be called learning. It does not include the processes and results that characterize the biological maturation of the organism. Although the processes of maturation are also associated with the acquisition of a new body. They are little or almost independent of training and learning.

1. At the same time, every process called learning is not entirely independent of maturation. Learning almost always relies on a certain level of biological maturity of the organism and cannot be realized without it.

EXAMPLE. It is hardly possible to teach a child to speak until the time when the necessary organic structures for this have matured: the vocal apparatus, the corresponding parts of the brain responsible for speech.

2. Learning - depends on the maturation of the organism according to the nature of the process:

it can be accelerated or retarded according to the acceleration or deceleration of the maturation of the organism.

Maturation - a natural process of transformation of the anatomical structures and physiological processes of the body as it grows.

However, there can be feedback between these processes.

Learning and learning to a certain extent affect the maturation of the body.