"Angle" parameters, such as camber and traction angle, are measured in degrees, but can be displayed in either degrees or degrees and minutes. Toe parameters are also "angular" and therefore always measured in degrees, but can be displayed both in degrees and in units of length.

The most important question in this situation is: at what diameter of the tire or wheel is this distance measured? The larger the diameter, the greater the distance for a given angle. If the unit of measurement is set to the ratio inches or millimeters and reference diameter, the system uses the reference diameter value set on the Vehicle Specifications screen.If the units are set to inches or millimeters, but no disc diameter is specified, the default diameter is 28.648 inches, which is a simple conversion of 2° toe per inch (or 25.4 millimeters) of toe.

When displayed as a distance, toe-in indicates the difference in track width between the front and rear ends of the wheels.

small angles

In principle, it would be possible to measure all angles in radians. In practice, the degree measurement of angles is also widely used, although from a purely mathematical point of view it is unnatural. In this case, special units are used for small angles: an arc minute and an arc second. An arc minute is 1/60 of degrees; a second of arc is 1/60 of an arc minute.

The idea of ​​a minute of arc gives the following fact: ``resolution' of the human eye (with 100% vision and good lighting) is approximately one arc minute. This means that two points that are seen at an angle of 1" or less are perceived by the eye as one.

Let's see what we can say about the sine, cosine and tangent of small angles. If the angle α is small in the figure, then the height BC, the arc BD and the segment BE perpendicular to AB are very close. Their lengths are sin α, radian measure α and tg α. Therefore, for small angles, the sine, tangent and radian measure are approximately equal to each other: If α is a small angle measured in radians, then sin α ≈ α; tgα ≈ α

The tangent of an angle of a right triangle is the ratio of the opposite leg to the adjacent leg. The tangent of the angle α is denoted: tg α. And at small angles (namely, these are the ones in question), the tangent is approximately equal to the angle itself, measured in radians.

An example of converting a linear quantity into an angular one:

Disc diameter: 360 mm AC
Toe: 1.5mm BC
Then tg α ≈ α= 1.5/360 = 0.00417 (rad)

Convert to degrees:

α[°] = (180 / π) × α[rad]

where: α[rad] - angle in radians, α[°] - angle in degrees

Typically, toe-in displays the width of the track between the front and rear ends of a car's wheel. Here is the general formula for finding convergence:

small angles

Translation example:

Convergence is: 1.5 mm

Convert to degrees:

α[°] = (180 / π) × α[rad]

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1 millimeter [mm] = 56.6929133858264 twip

Initial value

Converted value

twip meter centimeter millimeter symbol (X) symbol (Y) pixel (X) pixel (Y) inch soldering (computer) soldering (typographical) point NIS/PostScript point (computer) point (typographical) middle dash cicero em dash point Didot

Learn more about units used in typography and processing digital imaging

General information

Typography is the study of the reproduction of text on a page and the use of size, typeface, color, and other external features to make text read and look beautiful. Typography appeared in the middle of the 15th century, with the advent of printing presses. The position of the text on the page affects our perception - the better it is placed, the more likely the reader will understand and remember what is written in the text. Poor typography, on the contrary, makes the text hard to read.

Headsets are divided into different types, such as serif and sans-serif fonts. Serifs - decorative element font, but in some cases they make the text easier to read, although sometimes the opposite happens. The first letter (in blue) in the image is in Bodoni serif. One of the four serifs is circled in red. The second letter (yellow) is in Futura sans-serif.

There are many classifications of fonts, such as according to when they were created, or according to the style popular at a particular time. Yes, there are fonts. old style- a group that includes the oldest fonts; newer fonts transitional style; modern fonts, created after the transitional fonts and before the 1820s; and finally new style fonts or modernized old fonts, that is, fonts made according to the old model at a later time. This classification is mainly used for serif fonts. There are other classifications based on appearance fonts, such as line thickness, the contrast between thin and thick lines, and the shape of serifs. The domestic press has its own classifications. For example, the GOST classification groups fonts according to the presence and absence of serifs, thickening of serifs, smooth transition from the main line to serifs, serif rounding, and so on. In the classifications of Russian, as well as other Cyrillic scripts, there is often a category for Old Church Slavonic fonts.

The main task of typography is adjusting the size of letters and choosing suitable fonts, place the text on the page so that it reads well and looks beautiful. There are a number of systems for determining font size. In some cases, the same size of letters in typographic units if they are printed in different headsets, does not mean the same size of the letters themselves in centimeters or inches. This situation is described in more detail below. Despite the inconvenience caused by this, the currently used font size helps designers neatly and beautifully compose the text on the page. This is especially important in layout.

In layout, you need to know not only the size of the text, but also the height and width of digital images in order to place them on the page. The size can be expressed in centimeters or inches, but there is also a unit specifically designed to measure the size of images - pixels. A pixel is an image element in the form of a dot (or square) of which it consists.

Definition of units

The size of letters in typography is indicated by the word "size". There are several point size measurement systems, but most of them are unit based. "soldering" in the American and English measurement systems (English pica), or "picero" in the European measurement system. The name "soldering" is sometimes written as "peak". There are several types of soldering, which vary slightly in size, so when using soldering, it is worth remembering which kind of soldering you mean. Initially, picero was used in domestic printing, but soldering is also common now. Cicero and computer soldering are similar in size but not equal. Sometimes picero or soldering is used directly for measurement, for example, to determine the size of margins or columns. More commonly, especially for text measurement, derived units derived from soldering, such as typographical points, are used. The size of the soldering is determined in different systems in different ways, as described below.

The letters are measured as shown in the illustration:

Other units

Although computer soldering is gradually replacing other units, and possibly will replace the more familiar piceros, other units are also used along with it. One of these units is american soldering It is equal to 0.166 inches or 2.9 millimeters. There is also printing soldering. It is equal to the American one.

In some domestic printing houses and in the literature on printing, they still use pica- a unit that was widely used in Europe (with the exception of England) before the advent of computer soldering. One picero is equal to 1/6 French inch. The French inch is slightly different from the modern inch. In modern units, one picero is equal to 4.512 millimeters or 0.177 inches. This value is almost equal to computer rations. One picero is 1.06 computer rations.

Em and Semi-Embed (en)

The units described above determine the height of letters, but there are also units that indicate the width of letters and characters. Round and semicircular spaces are just such units. The first is also known as the em, or em, from the English for the letter M. Its width historically equaled the width of this English letter. Similarly, a semi-circular spacing equal to half a round spacing is known as en. Now these values ​​are not defined using the letter M, since this letter can have a different size in different fonts, even if the size is the same.

In Russian, en dashes and em dashes are used. To indicate ranges and intervals (for example, in the phrase: “take 3-4 spoons of sugar”), an en dash is used, also called a dash-en (English en dash). The em dash is used in Russian in all other cases (for example, in the phrase: "the summer was short, and the winter was long"). It is also called a dash-em (English em dash).

Problems with modern systems of units

Many designers do not like the current system of typographic units based on rations or piceros and typographic points. the main problem in that these units are not tied to the metric or imperial system of measures, and at the same time they have to be used together with centimeters or inches, in which the size of illustrations is measured.

In addition, letters made in two different typefaces can be very different in size, even if they are the same size in typographic paragraphs. This is because the height of the letter is measured as the height of the letter pad, which is not directly related to the height of the character. This makes it difficult for designers, especially if they are working with multiple fonts in the same document. The illustration is an example of this problem. The size of all three fonts in typographic paragraphs is the same, but the height of the character is different everywhere. Some designers propose to measure the font size as the height of the sign to solve this problem.

), the question of correct camber / toe on the car was unwittingly raised. Correctly set camber, toe and castor angles, as well as incorrect ones, can significantly change the car's habits on the road, this should be especially felt at higher speeds.

1. To begin with, I turned to tyrnet for optimal angles wheel settings, and it turned out that the factory recommends the following values ​​for us:

Curb vehicle, front axle:
Camber 0 degrees +/-30 minutes
Caster 1 degree 15 minutes +/- 30 minutes (without ESD)
2 degrees 20 minutes +/- 30 minutes (with EUR)
Convergence linear 2 +/- 1 mm
angular 0 degrees 10 minutes - 0 degrees 30 minutes
Rear axle:
Camber -1 degree
Convergence total 10 minutes

2. Next, I raised the printout of the very first measurements with TO-1 at 2300 km in DAV-Auto (far autumn 2012). To my surprise, the work was carried out according to the map of the first Kalina (thank you, not according to 2110). By that time, the car had been on sale for a whole year, and it was strange not to find the correct parameters in the equipment from the OD.

Before:
Caster - good
Breakdown is ok
Convergence - good
Rear:
Breakdown is ok
Convergence - incomprehensible, terribly much (apparently by-effect from using the card of another car model)

3. Last fall, the springs were replaced around the TechnoRessor -30, after which I went to edit the wheel alignment on a 3D stand in the Kar-Ib garage. By the way, before the measurements they didn’t even check and didn’t ask about tire pressure. In addition, after the adjustments, the steering wheel began to look to the left, but did not return to them for alteration. The results were as follows:

There are two questions here:
Why such a huge caster?
- Why is the camber on the rear wheels so different?

The only reason for the increase in caster could only be an understatement, no other changes were made to the suspension. But this option was questionable. Firstly, such a caster would be visually noticeable, the wheels should already be close to the front bumper. Secondly, it is simply logically difficult to explain how understating can affect caster in such a way.

But there were several options for the collapse at the back: a bent beam, inaccurate measurements, a crooked wheel.

***********************************************************************************************************************
4. Before the upcoming spring suspension repair, I decided to go back to the stand for control and take measurements. But not just like that. The reason was as follows - visually it seemed that the right wheel was littered with minus camber, despite the fact that the right one was standing exactly. I thought that the car had gone through a hole somewhere. To eliminate his cretinism, he showed the wheel to the guys he knew, they nodded in agreement, saying that the left wheel really "lies". But the 3D stand of the same Kar-Ib showed the following ...

In total we see:
- positive camber on both wheels! (You need to show your eyes to the ophthalmologist)
- castor again don't understand what. The razvalshchik said that he hadn’t matched them on more than one car yet! What? There is no more foot. In addition, the pressure again in the wheels was not checked before measurements.
- with the rear beam, again, everything is bad, apparently bent, sadness.

***********************************************************************************************************************
5. After servicing the suspension and setting the crabs spacer, he began to look for new razvalshchikov. The car was terribly pulled to the left, so I couldn’t stand it for a long time, and instead of lunch in the middle of the working day I went to a certain car service general profile under the name "Obereg", which is on Karpinsky. The stand there is computer, but with stringing and other shamanism. He helped me find Grant in the list of cards, otherwise they wanted to do it for my sister Kalina. They didn’t measure the rear axle, they said that they don’t do this, well, well. They didn't give me a printout either, their mechanoid just closed the program and said "I'm done." But I remember everything, the result is the following:

Front (left / right)
Caster: +1.50" / +2.00"
Camber: +0.15" / +0.20"
Toe: +0.10" / +0.10"

The car drives straight, the steering wheel is straight, no complaints. But I won't go a second time. Yes, they were expensive.

***********************************************************************************************************************

Soon there will be manipulations with the suspension again, I'll go and check the new razvalshchikov.

Total cost:
Adjustment in Kar-Iba (autumn) - 800 rubles.
Measurements in Kar-Iba (spring) - 400 rubles.
Adjustment to the Amulet (spring) - 900 rubles.

Perhaps I will write in "pieces". Without spreading especially over several changes in one record.
I want to talk about suspension settings. About the collapse. But do not rush to close the article! Yes, you can go to a specialist. Everything will be adjusted for you. And you will even like it. BUT.
Crap. Well, at least in some of my entries, I can do without this "but"?
So. Do you want to tune your suspension better? Factory data is not perfect. They can be changed. So that it is more pleasant and better to go.
Yes, and if you want to work a little with your hands - save money.
I'll try to highlight some points. So, for starters: read in the factory book (or on the Internet) how and by what the suspension parameters are adjusted (well, if you don’t know this, of course)
And further. What you heard about the "it's hard" and "requires high precision" plan is all wrong. Enough mindfulness, thinking of heads and arms that do not grow at the level of the middle of the body. And I'll help you with the rest.

Front axle:

The first thing to do is castor. If you change it, then the rest of the parameters will have to be configured again.
How to measure it "in my garage"? Well, there is a way, but you don't need it. I would advise to be guided by the gap between the wheel and the rear of the wing. this is wrong, but ... Even if you make a mistake on some side by a few mm, then a Muscovite simply will not notice this. He's not that demanding. Although after turning the stabilizer I recommend at least once to put the castor on the stand. You probably won't need it later, except after crossing trenches, trenches, and open drains.

Second in line is collapse. It's easy to measure it. It is enough to make a plumb line: tie a nut about m6 in size to 80 centimeters of thread. The tool is ready. Well, plus, out of habit, a ruler with a "zero" from the end will come in handy. You can modify the usual.
Like this:

Now you can apply a plumb line to the wheel, but not in the center, but slightly to the side of the "bloat" (which is at the bottom due to weight)

Gap at the top i.e. the wheel is littered inside, i.e. "minus" collapse.
If the gap is at the bottom, then the camber is "plus", the wheel is "like a Tatra"
How to regulate - I will not explain.
Experiments gave the camber that I like best in riding: -0"20" ~ -0"50" (that's minus 2-5mm on the plumb line at the top)
Want to turn aggressively? do -1 "30" (8-10mm on a plumb line) but it will be worse on the highway.
Do you drive on the highway a lot? Keep the wheel straight.

ATTENTION #1. Be afraid of mistakes! even if you make a mistake and put the wheels with a difference of 3mm, then neither the Muscovite nor you will notice this when driving!

ATTENTION #2. If you have machined the stabilizer too much, then the wheels may go too far "plus" - i.e. break the top out. And so much so that the margin of adjustment is not enough. Then just remove the wheel, unscrew the two bolts (TO UNLOCK THE LOWER, but do not knock out, I remind you!) And saw through the upper hole in the rack inward. Taking into account that 2 mm cut is enough to fill up the wheel by 5-6 millimeters.

Don't be afraid to do it! Opel-Omega and FV Passat, well-known to you, have such cuts directly from the factory. And as you can see, they drive, do not break up.

Convergence.
Tools: the same ruler and 5 meters of thin (2-3mm) rubber cord (normal, but uncomfortable). Cut the cord into 2 pieces.

Tie back to the spare wheel bracket and stretch along the middle of the wheels as in the photo.

Just gently move the hand with the cord, touching the front wheel. If you have collapsed, then deal with it.
The gap in the front of the wheel - "convergence", or "plus"
Gap in the rear - respectively "discrepancy" or "minus"
I always did everything + 0 "05" (plus 0.5 mm)
On the cord, it will look like "almost flat", but with a slight hint of positive.

Rear axle
The principle of measurement is the same as the collapse and convergence. But the adjustment is more difficult.
Let me remind you. The hub axle is bolted to the beam with four bolts with a diameter of 10mm. Pretty popular pattern.

By changing the fit of the plane with washers, you can adjust both camber and toe.

ATTENTION No. 2 Washers are placed only between the brake shield and the beam (otherwise there were cases) :)

For adjustment, you will need several washers 10 or 12 (easier to get) 0.5 mm thick or thinner. Thin washers with a diameter of 12 are adjusting from the factory in the VAZ classic as adjusting camber.
Put washers on the basis of: 0.5mm washer is 1.5-2mm on the wheel. It rarely works the first time.
We measured all the parameters on both wheels, wrote it down, figured out how many washers would be needed and on which bolts. Checked again. We remove the drum. Unscrewing one bolt at a time, put the washers in turn.
We measure:

My parameters:
camber -1 "20" (minus 8mm on the top of the plumb line)
toe +0"10" (1mm clearance in front)
(a legacy of the glorious brand Audi)

So to speak:
If you are doing it for the first time and are worried, then do it, and then go to the test stand. Ask for a printout of the data and to explain where which parameter is and figure it out in millimeters. Measure on the car again, compare with the printout.
Degrees-minutes to millimeters approximately 10/1 For example.
1"00" = 0"60" = 60 minutes = ~6mm
1"40" = 0"60"+0"40" = 100 minutes = ~10mm

All data together (degrees/minutes):
Before:
castor: +1 "30 minimum (I made +2" 30)
camber: universal -0 "30 -0" 50, sport -1 "30, track 0" 00
toe: +0"05 (total +0"10)
Rear:
camber: -1"20
toe +0"10 (total +0"20)

Get together - don't fall apart! :)
(if you forgot something and have questions - write in the comments)

Angular values ​​are actively used in our life along with linear ones. The more important is the ability to translate one type of quantities into others. Consider the "car" example of the possibility of transferring some quantities to others.

The thrust and camber angle parameters are usually measured in degrees, but they can be measured and displayed in degrees and minutes. Toe parameters are also measured in degrees, but can also be displayed as length parameters. The parameters listed above are considered to be angular, since we calculate the angle.

One of the most important questions will be the question: at what value of the diameter of the tire or wheel is the distance of the corner measured? It is quite natural that with a larger diameter, the distance of the angle will also be large. Some nuances should be noted here: with the ratio of inches and millimeters of the reference diameter, the value of the reference is used, which is set and displayed on the "Vehicle Specifications" screen. However, if the units of measurement are millimeters and inches, but there is no information about the diameter of the rim, then it is assumed that the diameter is equal to the standard, that is, 28.648 inches.

Typically, toe-in displays the width of the track between the front and rear ends of a car's wheel. Here is the general formula for finding convergence:

small angles

Of course, everything can be measured in the corners. However, angular division is often unnatural and inconvenient, since whole degrees are subdivided into smaller units: a second of arc and a minute of arc. An arc minute is 1/60 of a degree; an arc second is 1/60 of the previous unit.

The human eye under normal lighting is able to "fix" a value approximately equal to 1 minute. That is, the resolution of the human organ of vision perceives instead of two points having a distance of one minute between them, or even less, as one.

It is also worth considering the concepts of sine and tangent of small angles. The tangent of the angle of a right triangle is usually called the ratio of the sides of the opposite leg to the adjacent one. The tangent of the angle α is usually denoted: tg α. At small angles (which, in fact, are discussed.), The tangent of the angle is equal to the angle measured in radians.

Translation example:

Suggested disc diameter: 360 mm

Convergence is: 1.5 mm

Then we consider that, tg α ≈ α= 1.5/360 = 0.00417 (rad)

Convert to degrees:

α[°] = (180 / π) × α[rad]

where: α[rad] - designation of the angle in radians, α[°] - designation of the angle in degrees

Now let's carry out the conversion process in minutes:

α = 0.00417×57.295779513°=0.2654703°=14.33542"

A special converter will help convert some units.

Thus, we see: converting angular values ​​into linear ones is not difficult.

Length and Distance Converter Mass Converter Bulk Food and Food Volume Converter Area Converter Volume and Recipe Units Converter Temperature Converter Pressure, Stress, Young's Modulus Converter Energy and Work Converter Power Converter Force Converter Time Converter Linear Velocity Converter Flat Angle Converter thermal efficiency and fuel efficiency Converter of numbers in different number systems Converter of units of measurement of quantity of information Currency rates Dimensions of women's clothing and shoes Dimensions of men's clothing and shoes Angular velocity and rotation frequency converter Acceleration converter Angular acceleration converter Density converter Specific volume converter Moment of inertia converter Moment of force converter Torque converter Specific heat of combustion (by mass) Converter Energy density and specific heat of combustion of fuel (by volume) Temperature difference converter Thermal expansion coefficient converter Thermal resistance converter Thermal conductivity converter Specific heat capacity converter Energy exposure and thermal radiation power converter Heat flux density converter Heat Transfer Coefficient Converter Volume Flow Converter Mass Flow Converter Molar Flow Converter Mass Flux Density Converter Molar Concentration Converter Mass Solution Mass Concentration Converter Dynamic (Absolute) Viscosity Converter Kinematic Viscosity Converter Surface Tension Converter Vapor Permeability Converter Water Vapor Flux Density Converter Sound Level Converter Microphone Sensitivity Converter Converter sound pressure level (SPL) Sound pressure level converter with selectable reference pressure Brightness converter Luminous intensity converter Illuminance converter Computer graphics resolution converter Frequency and wavelength converter Power in diopters and focal length Power in diopters and lens magnification (×) Converter Electric Charge Linear Charge Density Converter Surface Charge Density Converter Bulk Charge Density Converter Electric Current Converter Linear Current Density Converter Surface Current Density Converter Electric Field Strength Converter Electrostatic Potential and Voltage Converter Electrical Resistance Converter Electrical Resistivity Converter Electrical Conductivity Converter Electrical Conductivity Converter Capacitance Inductance converter American wire gauge converter Levels in dBm (dBm or dBm), dBV (dBV), watts, etc. units Magnetomotive force converter Magnetic field strength converter Magnetic flux converter Magnetic induction converter Radiation. Ionizing Radiation Absorbed Dose Rate Converter Radioactivity. Radioactive Decay Converter Radiation. Exposure Dose Converter Radiation. Absorbed Dose Converter Decimal Prefix Converter Data Transfer Typographic and Image Processing Unit Converter Timber Volume Unit Converter Calculation of Molar Mass Periodic Table of Chemical Elements by D. I. Mendeleev

1 millimeter per minute [mm/min] = 0.0166666666666666 millimeter per second [mm/s]

Initial value

Converted value

meter per second meter per hour meter per minute kilometer per hour kilometer per minute kilometers per second centimeter per hour centimeter per minute centimeter per second millimeter per hour millimeter per minute millimeter per second foot per hour foot per minute foot per second yard per hour yard per minute yard per second mile per hour mile per minute mile per second knot knot (Brit.) speed of light in vacuum first space velocity second space velocity third space velocity earth's rotation speed sound speed in fresh water sound speed in sea water (20°C, depth 10 meters) Mach number (20°C, 1 atm) Mach number (SI standard)

More about speed

General information

Speed ​​is a measure of the distance traveled in a given time. Velocity can be a scalar quantity or a vector value - the direction of motion is taken into account. The speed of movement in a straight line is called linear, and in a circle - angular.

Speed ​​measurement

average speed v find by dividing the total distance traveled ∆ x for the total time ∆ t: v = ∆x/∆t.

In the SI system, speed is measured in meters per second. Kilometers per hour are also widely used in metric system and miles per hour in the US and UK. When, in addition to the magnitude, the direction is also indicated, for example, 10 meters per second to the north, then we are talking about vector speed.

The speed of bodies moving with acceleration can be found using the formulas:

• a, with initial speed u during the period ∆ t, has a final speed v = u + a×∆ t.
• A body moving with constant acceleration a, with initial speed u and final speed v, has an average speed ∆ v = (u + v)/2.

Average speeds

The speed of light and sound

According to the theory of relativity, the speed of light in a vacuum is the highest speed at which energy and information can travel. It is denoted by the constant c and equal to c= 299,792,458 meters per second. Matter cannot move at the speed of light because it would require an infinite amount of energy, which is impossible.

The speed of sound is usually measured in an elastic medium and is 343.2 meters per second in dry air at 20°C. The speed of sound is lowest in gases and highest in solids X. It depends on the density, elasticity, and shear modulus of the substance (which indicates the degree of deformation of the substance under shear loading). Mach number M is the ratio of the speed of a body in a liquid or gas medium to the speed of sound in this medium. It can be calculated using the formula:

M = v/a,

Where a is the speed of sound in the medium, and v is the speed of the body. The Mach number is commonly used in determining speeds close to the speed of sound, such as aircraft speeds. This value is not constant; it depends on the state of the medium, which, in turn, depends on pressure and temperature. Supersonic speed - speed exceeding 1 Mach.

Vehicle speed

Below are some vehicle speeds.

• Passenger aircraft with turbofan engines: the cruising speed of passenger aircraft is from 244 to 257 meters per second, which corresponds to 878–926 kilometers per hour or M = 0.83–0.87.
• High-speed trains (like the Shinkansen in Japan): These trains reach top speeds of 36 to 122 meters per second, i.e. 130 to 440 kilometers per hour.

animal speed

The maximum speeds of some animals are approximately equal:

human speed

• Humans walk at about 1.4 meters per second, or 5 kilometers per hour, and run at up to about 8.3 meters per second, or 30 kilometers per hour.

Examples of different speeds

four dimensional speed

In classical mechanics, the vector velocity is measured in three-dimensional space. According to the special theory of relativity, space is four-dimensional, and the fourth dimension, space-time, is also taken into account in the measurement of speed. This speed is called four-dimensional speed. Its direction may change, but the magnitude is constant and equal to c, which is the speed of light. Four-dimensional speed is defined as

U = ∂x/∂τ,

Where x represents the world line - a curve in space-time along which the body moves, and τ - "proper time", equal to the interval along the world line.

group speed

Group velocity is the velocity of wave propagation, which describes the propagation velocity of a group of waves and determines the rate of wave energy transfer. It can be calculated as ∂ ω /∂k, Where k is the wave number, and ω - angular frequency. K measured in radians / meter, and the scalar frequency of wave oscillations ω - in radians per second.

Hypersonic speed

Hypersonic speed is a speed exceeding 3000 meters per second, that is, many times higher than the speed of sound. Solid bodies moving at such a speed acquire the properties of liquids, since due to inertia, the loads in this state are stronger than the forces that hold the molecules of matter together during a collision with other bodies. At ultra-high hypersonic speeds, two colliding solid bodies turn into gas. In space, bodies move exactly at this speed, and engineers designing spacecraft, orbital stations, and spacesuits must take into account the possibility of a station or astronaut colliding with space debris and other objects when working in outer space. In such a collision, the skin of the spacecraft and the suit suffer. Equipment designers conduct hypersonic collision experiments in special laboratories to determine how strong impact suits can withstand, as well as skins and other parts of the spacecraft, such as fuel tanks and solar panels, by testing them for strength. To do this, spacesuits and skin are subjected to impacts by various objects from a special installation with supersonic speeds exceeding 7500 meters per second.

Angular values ​​are actively used in our life along with linear ones. The more important is the ability to translate one type of quantities into others. Consider the "car" example of the possibility of transferring some quantities to others.

The thrust and camber angle parameters are usually measured in degrees, but they can be measured and displayed in degrees and minutes. Toe parameters are also measured in degrees, but can also be displayed as length parameters. The parameters listed above are considered to be angular, since we calculate the angle.

One of the most important questions will be the question: at what value of the diameter of the tire or wheel is the distance of the corner measured? It is quite natural that with a larger diameter, the distance of the angle will also be large. Some nuances should be noted here: with the ratio of inches and millimeters of the reference diameter, the value of the reference is used, which is set and displayed on the "Vehicle Specifications" screen. However, if the units of measurement are millimeters and inches, but there is no information about the diameter of the rim, then it is assumed that the diameter is equal to the standard, that is, 28.648 inches.

Typically, toe-in displays the width of the track between the front and rear ends of a car's wheel. Here is the general formula for finding convergence:

small angles

Of course, everything can be measured in the corners. However, angular division is often unnatural and inconvenient, since whole degrees are subdivided into smaller units: a second of arc and a minute of arc. An arc minute is 1/60 of a degree; an arc second is 1/60 of the previous unit.

The human eye under normal lighting is able to "fix" a value approximately equal to 1 minute. That is, the resolution of the human organ of vision perceives instead of two points having a distance of one minute between them, or even less, as one.

It is also worth considering the concepts of sine and tangent of small angles. The tangent of the angle of a right triangle is usually called the ratio of the sides of the opposite leg to the adjacent one. The tangent of the angle α is usually denoted: tg α. At small angles (which, in fact, are discussed.), The tangent of the angle is equal to the angle measured in radians.

Translation example:

Suggested disc diameter: 360 mm

Convergence is: 1.5 mm

Then we consider that, tg α ≈ α= 1.5/360 = 0.00417 (rad)

Convert to degrees:

α[°] = (180 / π) × α[rad]

where: α[rad] - designation of the angle in radians, α[°] - designation of the angle in degrees

Now let's carry out the conversion process in minutes:

α = 0.00417×57.295779513°=0.2654703°=14.33542"

A special converter will help convert some units.

Thus, we see: converting angular values ​​into linear ones is not difficult.

), the question of correct camber / toe on the car was unwittingly raised. Correctly set camber, toe and castor angles, as well as incorrect ones, can significantly change the car's habits on the road, this should be especially felt at higher speeds.

1. To begin with, I turned to tyrnet for optimal wheel alignment angles, and it turned out that the factory recommends the following values ​​for us:

Curb vehicle, front axle:
Camber 0 degrees +/-30 minutes
Caster 1 degree 15 minutes +/- 30 minutes (without ESD)
2 degrees 20 minutes +/- 30 minutes (with EUR)
Convergence linear 2 +/- 1 mm
angular 0 degrees 10 minutes - 0 degrees 30 minutes
Rear axle:
Camber -1 degree
Convergence total 10 minutes

2. Next, I raised the printout of the very first measurements with TO-1 at 2300 km in DAV-Auto (far autumn 2012). To my surprise, the work was carried out according to the map of the first Kalina (thank you, not according to 2110). By that time, the car had been on sale for a whole year, and it was strange not to find the correct parameters in the equipment from the OD.

Before:
Caster - good
Breakdown is ok
Convergence - good
Rear:
Breakdown is ok
Convergence - incomprehensible, terribly much (apparently a side effect of using a different car model card)

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3. Last fall, the springs were replaced around the TechnoRessor -30, after which I went to edit the wheel alignment on a 3D stand in the Kar-Ib garage. By the way, before the measurements they didn’t even check and didn’t ask about tire pressure. In addition, after the adjustments, the steering wheel began to look to the left, but did not return to them for alteration. The results were as follows:

There are two questions here:
Why such a huge caster?
- Why is the camber on the rear wheels so different?

The only reason for the increase in caster could only be an understatement, no other changes were made to the suspension. But this option was questionable. Firstly, such a caster would be visually noticeable, the wheels should already be close to the front bumper. Secondly, it is simply logically difficult to explain how understating can affect caster in such a way.

But there were several options for the collapse at the back: a bent beam, inaccurate measurements, a crooked wheel.

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4. Before the upcoming spring suspension repair, I decided to go back to the stand for control and take measurements. But not just like that. The reason was as follows - visually it seemed that the right wheel was littered with minus camber, despite the fact that the right one was standing exactly. I thought that the car had gone through a hole somewhere. To eliminate his cretinism, he showed the wheel to the guys he knew, they nodded in agreement, saying that the left wheel really "lies". But the 3D stand of the same Kar-Ib showed the following ...

In total we see:
- positive camber on both wheels! (You need to show your eyes to the ophthalmologist)
- castor again don't understand what. The razvalshchik said that he hadn’t matched them on more than one car yet! What? There is no more foot. In addition, the pressure again in the wheels was not checked before measurements.
- with the rear beam, again, everything is bad, apparently bent, sadness.

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5. After servicing the suspension and setting the crabs spacer, he began to look for new razvalshchikov. The car was terribly pulled to the left, so I couldn’t stand it for a long time, and instead of having lunch in the middle of a working day, I went to a certain general-purpose car service called Obereg, which is on Karpinskogo. The stand there is computer, but with stringing and other shamanism. He helped me find Grant in the list of cards, otherwise they wanted to do it for my sister Kalina. They didn’t measure the rear axle, they said that they don’t do this, well, well. They didn't give me a printout either, their mechanoid just closed the program and said "I'm done." But I remember everything, the result is the following:

Front (left / right)
Caster: +1.50" / +2.00"
Camber: +0.15" / +0.20"
Toe: +0.10" / +0.10"

The car drives straight, the steering wheel is straight, no complaints. But I won't go a second time. Yes, they were expensive.

***********************************************************************************************************************

Soon there will be manipulations with the suspension again, I'll go and check the new razvalshchikov.

Total cost:
Adjustment in Kar-Iba (autumn) - 800 rubles.
Measurements in Kar-Iba (spring) - 400 rubles.
Adjustment to the Amulet (spring) - 900 rubles.

Perhaps I will write in "pieces". Without spreading especially over several changes in one record.
I want to talk about suspension settings. About the collapse. But do not rush to close the article! Yes, you can go to a specialist. Everything will be adjusted for you. And you will even like it. BUT.
Crap. Well, at least in some of my entries, I can do without this "but"?
So. Do you want to tune your suspension better? Factory data is not perfect. They can be changed. So that it is more pleasant and better to go.
Yes, and if you want to work a little with your hands - save money.
I'll try to highlight some points. So, for starters: read in the factory book (or on the Internet) how and by what the suspension parameters are adjusted (well, if you don’t know this, of course)
And further. What you heard about the "it's hard" and "requires high precision" plan is all wrong. Enough mindfulness, thinking of heads and arms that do not grow at the level of the middle of the body. And I'll help you with the rest.

Front axle:

The first thing to do is castor. If you change it, then the rest of the parameters will have to be configured again.
How to measure it "in my garage"? Well, there is a way, but you don't need it. I would advise to be guided by the gap between the wheel and the rear of the wing. this is wrong, but ... Even if you make a mistake on some side by a few mm, then a Muscovite simply will not notice this. He's not that demanding. Although after turning the stabilizer I recommend at least once to put the castor on the stand. You probably won't need it later, except after crossing trenches, trenches, and open drains.

Second in line is collapse. It's easy to measure it. It is enough to make a plumb line: tie a nut about m6 in size to 80 centimeters of thread. The tool is ready. Well, plus, out of habit, a ruler with a "zero" from the end will come in handy. You can modify the usual.
Like this:

Now you can apply a plumb line to the wheel, but not in the center, but slightly to the side of the "bloat" (which is at the bottom due to weight)

Gap at the top i.e. the wheel is littered inside, i.e. "minus" collapse.
If the gap is at the bottom, then the camber is "plus", the wheel is "like a Tatra"
How to regulate - I will not explain.
Experiments gave the camber that I like best in riding: -0"20" ~ -0"50" (that's minus 2-5mm on the plumb line at the top)
Want to turn aggressively? do -1 "30" (8-10mm on a plumb line) but it will be worse on the highway.
Do you drive on the highway a lot? Keep the wheel straight.

ATTENTION #1. Be afraid of mistakes! even if you make a mistake and put the wheels with a difference of 3mm, then neither the Muscovite nor you will notice this when driving!

ATTENTION #2. If you have machined the stabilizer too much, then the wheels may go too far "plus" - i.e. break the top out. And so much so that the margin of adjustment is not enough. Then just remove the wheel, unscrew the two bolts (TO UNLOCK THE LOWER, but do not knock out, I remind you!) And saw through the upper hole in the rack inward. Taking into account that 2 mm cut is enough to fill up the wheel by 5-6 millimeters.

Don't be afraid to do it! Opel-Omega and FV Passat, well-known to you, have such cuts directly from the factory. And as you can see, they drive, do not break up.

Convergence.
Tools: the same ruler and 5 meters of thin (2-3mm) rubber cord (normal, but uncomfortable). Cut the cord into 2 pieces.

Tie back to the spare wheel bracket and stretch along the middle of the wheels as in the photo.

Just drive smoothly with the hand with the cord, touching the front wheel. If you have collapsed, then deal with it.
The gap in the front of the wheel - "convergence", or "plus"
Gap in the rear - respectively "discrepancy" or "minus"
I always did everything + 0 "05" (plus 0.5 mm)
On the cord, it will look like "almost flat", but with a slight hint of positive.

Rear axle
The principle of measurement is the same as the collapse and convergence. But the adjustment is more difficult.
Let me remind you. The hub axle is bolted to the beam with four bolts with a diameter of 10mm. Pretty popular pattern.

By changing the fit of the plane with washers, you can adjust both camber and toe.

ATTENTION No. 2 Washers are placed only between the brake shield and the beam (otherwise there were cases) :)

For adjustment, you will need several washers 10 or 12 (easier to get) 0.5 mm thick or thinner. Thin washers with a diameter of 12 are adjusting from the factory in the VAZ classic as adjusting camber.
Put washers on the basis of: 0.5mm washer is 1.5-2mm on the wheel. It rarely works the first time.
We measured all the parameters on both wheels, wrote it down, figured out how many washers would be needed and on which bolts. Checked again. We remove the drum. Unscrewing one bolt at a time, put the washers in turn.
We measure:

My parameters:
camber -1 "20" (minus 8mm on the top of the plumb line)
toe +0"10" (1mm clearance in front)
(a legacy of the glorious brand Audi)

So to speak:
If you are doing it for the first time and are worried, then do it, and then go to the test stand. Ask for a printout of the data and to explain where which parameter is and figure it out in millimeters. Measure on the car again, compare with the printout.
Degrees-minutes to millimeters approximately 10/1 For example.
1"00" = 0"60" = 60 minutes = ~6mm
1"40" = 0"60"+0"40" = 100 minutes = ~10mm

All data together (degrees/minutes):
Before:
castor: +1 "30 minimum (I made +2" 30)
camber: universal -0 "30 -0" 50, sport -1 "30, track 0" 00
toe: +0"05 (total +0"10)
Rear:
camber: -1"20
toe +0"10 (total +0"20)

Get together - don't fall apart! :)
(if you forgot something and have questions - write in the comments)

Angular values ​​are actively used in our life along with linear ones. The more important is the ability to translate one type of quantities into others. Consider the "car" example of the possibility of transferring some quantities to others.

The thrust and camber angle parameters are usually measured in degrees, but they can be measured and displayed in degrees and minutes. Toe parameters are also measured in degrees, but can also be displayed as length parameters. The parameters listed above are considered to be angular, since we calculate the angle.

One of the most important questions will be the question: at what value of the diameter of the tire or wheel is the distance of the corner measured? It is quite natural that with a larger diameter, the distance of the angle will also be large. Some nuances should be noted here: with the ratio of inches and millimeters of the reference diameter, the value of the reference is used, which is set and displayed on the "Vehicle Specifications" screen. However, if the units of measurement are millimeters and inches, but there is no information about the diameter of the rim, then it is assumed that the diameter is equal to the standard, that is, 28.648 inches.

Typically, toe-in displays the width of the track between the front and rear ends of a car's wheel. Here is the general formula for finding convergence:

small angles

Of course, everything can be measured in the corners. However, angular division is often unnatural and inconvenient, since whole degrees are subdivided into smaller units: a second of arc and a minute of arc. An arc minute is 1/60 of a degree; an arc second is 1/60 of the previous unit.

The human eye under normal lighting is able to "fix" a value approximately equal to 1 minute. That is, the resolution of the human organ of vision perceives instead of two points having a distance of one minute between them, or even less, as one.

It is also worth considering the concepts of sine and tangent of small angles. The tangent of the angle of a right triangle is usually called the ratio of the sides of the opposite leg to the adjacent one. The tangent of the angle α is usually denoted: tg α. At small angles (which, in fact, are discussed.), The tangent of the angle is equal to the angle measured in radians.

Translation example:

Suggested disc diameter: 360 mm

Convergence is: 1.5 mm

Then we consider that, tg α ≈ α= 1.5/360 = 0.00417 (rad)

Convert to degrees:

α[°] = (180 / π) × α[rad]

where: α[rad] - designation of the angle in radians, α[°] - designation of the angle in degrees

Now let's carry out the conversion process in minutes:

α = 0.00417×57.295779513°=0.2654703°=14.33542"

A special converter will help convert some units.

Thus, we see: converting angular values ​​into linear ones is not difficult.

"Angle" parameters, such as camber and traction angle, are measured in degrees, but can be displayed in either degrees or degrees and minutes. Toe parameters are also "angular" and therefore always measured in degrees, but can be displayed both in degrees and in units of length.

The most important question in this situation is: at what diameter of the tire or wheel is this distance measured? The larger the diameter, the greater the distance for a given angle.If the unit of measurement is set to the ratio inches or millimeters and reference diameter, the system uses the reference diameter value set on the Vehicle Specifications screen.If the units are set to inches or millimeters, but no disc diameter is specified, the default diameter is 28.648 inches, which is a simple conversion of 2° toe per inch (or 25.4 millimeters) of toe.

When displayed as a distance, toe-in indicates the difference in track width between the front and rear ends of the wheels.

L=L 2-L 1

small angles

In principle, it would be possible to measure all angles in radians. In practice, the degree measurement of angles is also widely used, although from a purely mathematical point of view it is unnatural. In this case, special units are used for small angles: an arc minute and an arc second. An arc minute is 1/60 ofdegrees; a second of arc is 1/60 of an arc minute.

The idea of ​​a minute of arc gives the following fact: ``resolution' of the human eye (with 100% vision and good lighting) is approximately one arc minute. This means that two points that are seen at an angle of 1" or less are perceived by the eye as one.

Let's see what we can say about the sine, cosine and tangent of small angles. If the angle α is small in the figure, then the height BC, the arc BD and the segment BE perpendicular to AB are very close. Their lengths are sin α, radian measure α and tg α. Therefore, for small angles, the sine, tangent and radian measure are approximately equal to each other: If α is a small angle measured in radians, then sin α ≈ α; tgα ≈ α

The tangent of an angle of a right triangle is the ratio of the opposite leg to the adjacent leg. The tangent of the angle α is denoted: tg α. And at small angles (namely, these are the ones in question), the tangent is approximately equal to the angle itself, measured in radians.

An example of converting a linear quantity into an angular one:

Disc diameter: 360 mm AC
Toe: 1.5mm BC
Then tgα ≈ α= 1.5/360 = 0.00417 (rad)

Convert to degrees:

α[°] = (180 / π) × α[rad]

where: α[rad] - angle in radians, α[°] - angle in degrees