Who are the Normans and where did they live. Chapter II Who were the Normans? Norman conquest of England - the most significant event of medieval Europe

The Normans are the Germanic population of Scandinavia. This name mainly refers to gangs of wild sea robbers who have long attacked the shores of Western Europe, known to the French and Germans under the name of the Normans, to the British under the name of the Danes, and to the Irish as the Ostmanns. The reasons for these raids were, on the one hand, the poverty of the country, which prompted the inhabitants to seek their livelihood outside their homeland, and on the other hand, the inheritance law, which legitimized the property of the father for the eldest sons, and doomed the younger ones to maritime robbery.

norman warriors

Ancient peoples. Normans

England suffered the longest from the Norman raids. In the first half of the 11th century, the Danes temporarily subjugated it, and from 1066 England fell under the rule of the Duke of Normandy William the Conqueror.

In the 9th century, the Normans penetrated the Mediterranean, devastating the shores of the Iberian Peninsula, Africa, Italy, Asia Minor, etc. (See the article Vikings in the Mediterranean.) At the beginning of the 11th century, Norman Christian pilgrims from France penetrated into Italy. Here they helped the princes of Capua, Naples, Salerno in their struggle against each other, as well as against the Byzantine Greeks and Saracens. In 1027, they received from the Duke of Naples a fertile district, where they founded a county, which grew due to the influx of new faces from the homeland. The offensive movement of the Normans in southern Italy took on wider dimensions when ten sons of the famous Norman knight, Count Tancred of Gotville, arrived here with their squads from Normandy, of whom they became especially famous Robert Guiscard And RogerI. In 1038, the Normans, in alliance with the Greeks, fought against the Saracens and, after the refusal of the first to allocate part of the conquered land to them, took Apulia from them, making (1040-43) its count Wilhelm Ironhand. His brother, Humphred, in 1053 captured the pope lionIX, who, in order to secure the apostolic throne, granted the winner all the lands of Lower Italy. The Normans in return recognized themselves as vassals of the popes. They actively participated in the crusades that began soon after. One of Humphred's successors, RogerII, united under his authority all the conquests of the Normans in Italy, and in 1130 the pope crowned him king of Neapolitan and Sicilian. The successors of Roger II stayed here until 1189, when all these possessions passed to the German imperial dynasty. Hohenstaufen.

Part of the Norman Vikings, heading towards England, took possession of the Shetland and Orkney Islands and, under the leadership of Naddodd, reached Iceland (860), which quickly began to be settled by settlers from Norway. From Iceland, the Normans continued their raids further. Erich the Red reached Greenland (896), and others even reached present-day Carolina. However, these discoveries were soon forgotten due to the danger of the path, and only in Iceland were the colonies of the Normans preserved.

In the East, the Normans raided the tribes that inhabited the shores of the Baltic Sea (Finns, Estonians, Slavs). They were known here by the name

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Normans (Normans, Nurmans, Vikings, lit. "Northern people") - a term used by the inhabitants of Western Europe in relation to the Scandinavians, who devastated the states of Europe from the 8th to the 11th century with sea robber raids. Part of one of the Scandinavian tribal formations - the Danes - settled on the northern coast of France, where they recognized nominal vassalage from the Franks. The other part, mostly Norwegians, settled in East Anglia, where they mixed with the local population. Many historians identify the Varangians with the Normans (see Norman theory).

Norman expansion

Normans - participants in sea campaigns on the territory of the Franks of the late VIII - mid-XI centuries. Historians describe the Normans as greedy, warlike, hardy, eloquent, prone to mixing with foreign populations. The first period of the expansion of the Normans (the end of the 8th-9th centuries) was characterized by scattered expeditions against the Frankish state, attacks on the shores of England, Scotland, Ireland and their resettlement to the Orkney, Faroe, Hebrides and Shetland Islands, somewhat later - to Iceland. Since the end of the 9th century, France and England have been attacked by larger detachments of the Normans, moving from robbery and tribute collection to settling the conquered territories. In northern France they found the Duchy of Normandy (911), conquer northeastern England. At the beginning of the XI century, all of England was already subject to the Danish kings. The campaigns of the Normans ceased around the middle of the ΧΙ century. The descendants of the Normans - immigrants from Normandy - subjugated England in the 2nd half of the ΧΙ century (Norman Conquest of England, 1066), as well as Southern Italy and Sicily, having founded the Sicilian Kingdom here (g.).

Normans in France

Danish and Norwegian Vikings in the second half of the 9th century, led by Hrolf the Pedestrian, began to occupy the northern land of France, now called Normandy. In 911, Charles III the Simple agreed to recognize the Norman lands at the mouth of the Seine. Hrolf took the Frankish name Rollon and took the vassal oath to King Charles of the Franks, becoming the first Duke of Normandy.

Normans in Scotland

The Normans, who actively colonized East Anglia and Ireland from the end of the 8th century, paid less attention to Scotland. Norse colonization affected only the islands adjacent to Scotland - Orkney, Shetland and the Hebrides, as well as the western and northern coasts of Scotland. In the occupied territories, the Normans created strongholds for an attack on Ireland. The Norwegians brought with them their language - West Norwegian norn - and laws. Norn existed as a colloquial language until the 19th century in the Shetland Islands. The Picts who lived in these territories before the arrival of the Norwegians were partly assimilated, partly exterminated. At the end of the reign of King Harald I the Fair-Haired (beginning of the 10th century), the islands captured by the Norwegians, the west coast and the north of the main part of Scotland - Caithness and Sutherland - formally became part of Norway, forming, together with the Faroe Islands, the county of Orkney. At the end of the 10th century, the county of Orkney was Christianized - before Christianity had established itself in Scandinavia. Only in the middle of the 13th century, when Scotland was already under Anglo-Norman influence, did the Scottish kings manage to stop the Norwegian expansion and regain the Hebrides and the entire coast of the main part of Scotland. Thus, the period of the presence of the Normans in the British Isles came to an end. After another 200 years, the Shetland and Orkney Islands were transferred to the Scottish crown.

Normans in Ireland

Having captured Shetland, Orkney and the Hebrides in the 8th century, the Normans began predatory raids (which lasted about 200 years) on Irish territory, and soon moved on to establishing settlements in Ireland. In 798, the Norse settled in the Dublin area, and from 818 they began to colonize the south coast, establishing settlements near the current cities of Wexford and Cork. In Ulster, the Normans took possession of the ecclesiastical capital of Ireland - the city of Armagh, and in the west they founded a colony, which later became the city and port of Limerick, at the confluence of the Shannon River into the estuary, deeply cutting into the island. Based on these settlements, the Normans made numerous predatory expeditions, penetrating along the rivers into the interior of the island. The richest and most developed southern and eastern parts of Ireland became the main object of robberies. In the first half of the 9th century, one of the leaders of the Normans, Thorgils, actually held a significant part of the island under his control. Thorgils made his capital the city of Athlone on the River Shannon, near Loch Ree.

The dominance of foreigners led to the liberation struggle, which especially intensified at the beginning of the 11th century. The struggle was led by local chieftains - the king of Munster, Brian Boru, and the ruler of Mita, Malachi. Malachi defeated the Norman troops and drove the Normans out of Dublin. In 998, Malachi was recognized as king of Ulster, losing Dublin to Brian, who in 1002 assumed the title of ard-ri (High King) of Ireland. Briand carried out political reform, tried to tighten the tax system, built many fortresses on the Shannon River, created a strong fleet, preparing for the upcoming battles to liberate Ireland from the Normans.

At the end of 1013, taking advantage of the rebellion raised against Briand by the ruler of Dublin, the Normans began to gather forces, sending for reinforcements to the Orkney Islands, Norway and Denmark. The decisive battle took place in 1014 near Dublin at Ox Meadow (now Clontarf). The Normans and their allied separatists were completely defeated. 88-year-old Brian died in this battle. As a result of the Battle of Clontarf, Ireland was freed from the foreign yoke. Norman robbery raids occurred after the battle of Clontarf, but became more rare and less dangerous.

The two-hundred-year domination and predatory raids of the Normans inflicted enormous damage on Ireland and slowed down its economic and social development.

Normans in the Mediterranean

The only campaign in which the ships of the Normans passed through the Strait of Gibraltar to the Mediterranean Sea dates back to about 860 and is attributed to the semi-legendary king of Sweden, Bjorn Ironside. The Normans plundered the coast of North Africa, Valencia, the Balearic Islands, Provence and northwestern Italy and returned unhindered. The Normans got into the Mediterranean in another way - as mercenaries as part of the Byzantine troops. In particular, in the XI century. a detachment of Scandinavian mercenaries participated in the wars of Byzantium against the Normans and Sicilian Arabs for South Italy. The Normans penetrated into Byzantium through Rus'.

norman warriors

The Norman warrior class was new and distinctly different from the old Frankish aristocracy, many of whom could trace their lineage back to Carolingian times, and the Normans could rarely recall ancestors before the 11th century. Most of the knights were poor and lacking land; Normandy supplied armed horsemen for more than a generation. Knighthood at this time had a low position in society, and showed that a person was just a professional warrior.

Language

The Normans spoke the Old Norse language, which was formed around the 8th century. and lasted until about the 14th century. The Old Norse language was divided into two dialects: eastern and western.

On the basis of the Western dialect, Norwegian, Faroese and Icelandic developed, as well as extinct by the 19th century. norn. The Eastern dialect split into Swedish and Danish.

In countries where Norman settlers mixed with the local population, the Old Norse language did not survive and develop into independent languages, but had a greater or lesser influence on the local languages ​​or their regional variants. In Normandy, the interaction of local Old French dialects with Old Norse led to the formation of Norman, which can be seen as a regional variant of Old French. To a lesser extent, the influence of the Old Norse language is manifested in the Celtic languages ​​​​of the British Isles - Gaelic, Irish, Manx. The English language experienced a powerful influence of the Old Norse language, both directly from the Normans in the period of the 8th-11th centuries, and indirectly through the Norman language, which (in the Anglo-Norman version) was the official language of England under the kings of the Norman dynasty and the first kings of the Plantagenet dynasty (from the middle of the 11th century until about the 14th century). The Scottish regional version of the English language was additionally influenced by the Scottish (Celtic) substrate, which also experienced Scandinavian influence at one time.

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Notes

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see also

An excerpt characterizing the Normans

- Yes, as you can see. So far so good; but I confess that I would very much like to become adjutant, and not remain in the front.
- For what?
- Then, that, having already gone through a career military service, we must try to make, if possible, a brilliant career.
- Yes, that's how! - said Rostov, apparently thinking of something else.
He looked intently and inquiringly into the eyes of his friend, apparently in vain looking for a solution to some question.
Old Gavrilo brought wine.
- Shouldn't we send for Alfons Karlych now? Boris said. He will drink with you, but I can't.
- Go-go! Well, what is this nonsense? Rostov said with a contemptuous smile.
“He is a very, very good, honest and pleasant person,” said Boris.
Rostov once again looked intently into Boris's eyes and sighed. Berg returned, and over a bottle of wine, the conversation between the three officers brightened up. The guards told Rostov about their campaign, about how they were honored in Russia, Poland and abroad. They told about the words and deeds of their commander, the Grand Duke, anecdotes about his kindness and temper. Berg, as usual, was silent when the matter did not concern him personally, but on the occasion of anecdotes about the irascibility of the Grand Duke, he told with pleasure how in Galicia he managed to talk with the Grand Duke when he went around the regiments and was angry for the wrong movement. With a pleasant smile on his face, he told how the Grand Duke, very angry, rode up to him and shouted: “Arnauts!” (Arnauts - was the favorite saying of the Tsarevich when he was angry) and demanded a company commander.
“Believe me, count, I was not afraid of anything, because I knew that I was right. You know, Count, without boasting, I can say that I know the orders for the regiment by heart and I also know the charter, like our Father in heaven. Therefore, count, there are no omissions in my company. Here is my conscience and calm. I came. (Berg half stood up and imagined in his faces how he appeared with his hand to the visor. Indeed, it was difficult to portray in a face more respectful and self-satisfied.) Already he pushed me, as they say, push, push; pushed not on the stomach, but on death, as they say; and "Arnauts", and devils, and to Siberia, - said Berg, smiling shrewdly. - I know that I'm right, and therefore I am silent: isn't it, Count? "What, are you dumb, or what?" he screamed. I keep silent. What do you think, Count? The next day it was not even in the order: that's what it means not to get lost. So, count, - said Berg, lighting his pipe and blowing rings.
"Yes, that's nice," said Rostov, smiling.
But Boris, noticing that Rostov was going to laugh at Berg, artfully dismissed the conversation. He asked Rostov to tell how and where he received the wound. Rostov was pleased, and he began to tell, during the story he became more and more animated. He told them his Shengraben case in exactly the same way as those who took part in them usually tell about the battles, that is, the way they would like it to be, the way they heard from other storytellers, the way it was more beautiful to tell, but not at all. the way it was. Rostov was a truthful young man; he would never deliberately tell a lie. He began to tell with the intention of telling everything exactly as it happened, but imperceptibly, involuntarily and inevitably for himself, he turned into a lie. If he had told the truth to these listeners, who, like himself, had already heard stories of attacks many times and formed a definite idea of ​​what an attack was, and expected exactly the same story - or they would not believe him, or, even worse, they would think that Rostov himself was to blame for the fact that what happened to him did not happen to him, which usually happens to the narrators of cavalry attacks. He could not tell them so simply that they all went at a trot, he fell off his horse, lost his arm and ran with all his might into the forest from the Frenchman. In addition, in order to tell everything as it happened, one had to make an effort on oneself to tell only what happened. Telling the truth is very difficult; and young people are rarely capable of it. They were waiting for a story about how he was on fire all over, not remembering himself, like a storm, he flew on a square; how he cut into him, chopped right and left; how the saber tasted the meat, and how he fell exhausted, and the like. And he told them all this.
In the middle of his story, while he was saying: “You cannot imagine what a strange feeling of fury you experience during an attack,” Prince Andrei Bolkonsky, whom Boris was waiting for, entered the room. Prince Andrei, who loved patronizing relations with young people, flattered by the fact that they turned to him for protection, and well disposed towards Boris, who knew how to please him the day before, wanted to fulfill the desire of the young man. Sent with papers from Kutuzov to the Tsarevich, he went to the young man, hoping to find him alone. Entering the room and seeing an army hussar telling military adventures (a sort of people whom Prince Andrei could not stand), he smiled affectionately at Boris, grimaced, narrowed his eyes at Rostov, and bowing slightly, wearily and lazily sat down on the sofa. He hated to be in bad company. Rostov flared up, realizing this. But it was all the same to him: it was a stranger. But, looking at Boris, he saw that he, too, seemed ashamed of the army hussar. Despite the unpleasant, mocking tone of Prince Andrei, despite the general contempt that Rostov, from his army combat point of view, had for all these staff adjutants, to whom the newcomer was obviously included, Rostov felt embarrassed, blushed and fell silent. Boris asked what was the news at the headquarters, and what, without indiscretion, was heard about our assumptions?
“Probably, they will go ahead,” Bolkonsky answered, apparently not wanting to talk more in front of strangers.
Berg took the opportunity to ask with particular courtesy whether they would now issue, as was heard, double the fodder allowance to army company commanders? To this, Prince Andrei replied with a smile that he could not judge such important state orders, and Berg laughed joyfully.
“About your case,” Prince Andrei turned again to Boris, “we will talk later, and he looked back at Rostov. - You come to me after the show, we will do everything that will be possible.
And, glancing around the room, he turned to Rostov, whom he did not deign to notice the position of childish irresistible embarrassment, turning into bitterness, and said:
- You seem to be talking about the Shengraben case? You were there?
“I was there,” Rostov said with anger, as if by this he wanted to offend the adjutant.
Bolkonsky noticed the state of the hussar, and it seemed funny to him. He smiled slightly contemptuously.
- Yes! Lots of stories about this stuff!
“Yes, stories,” Rostov spoke loudly, looking at Boris and then Bolkonsky with furious eyes, “yes, there are many stories, but our stories are the stories of those who were in the very fire of the enemy, our stories have weight, and not stories of those staff thugs who receive awards without doing anything.
“Which do you suppose I belong to?” - calmly and especially pleasantly smiling, said Prince Andrei.
A strange feeling of anger and at the same time respect for the calmness of this figure was united at that time in the soul of Rostov.
“I’m not talking about you,” he said, “I don’t know you and, I confess, I don’t want to know. I'm talking about staff in general.
“And I’ll tell you what,” Prince Andrei interrupted him with calm authority in his voice. - You want to insult me, and I am ready to agree with you that this is very easy to do if you do not have sufficient respect for yourself; but you will agree that both the time and place are very badly chosen for this. One of these days we will all have to be in a big, more serious duel, and besides, Drubetskaya, who says that he is your old friend, is not at all to blame for the fact that my physiognomy had the misfortune not to please you. However,” he said, getting up, “you know my name and you know where to find me; but do not forget,” he added, “that I do not consider myself or you offended at all, and my advice, as a man older than you, is to leave this matter without consequences. So on Friday, after the show, I'm waiting for you, Drubetskoy; goodbye, ”concluded Prince Andrei and went out, bowing to both.
Rostov remembered what he had to answer only when he had already left. And he was even more angry because he forgot to say it. Rostov immediately ordered his horse to be brought in and, after taking a dry farewell to Boris, rode off to his place. Should he go to the head quarters tomorrow and call in this fractious adjutant, or, in fact, leave the matter as it is? was a question that tormented him all the way. Now he thought with malice about how pleased he would be to see the fright of this small, weak and proud little man under his pistol, then he felt with surprise that of all the people he knew, he would not want so much to have his friend like this adjutant he hated.

On the next day of Boris' meeting with Rostov, there was a review of the Austrian and Russian troops, both fresh, who had come from Russia, and those who had returned from the campaign with Kutuzov. Both emperors, the Russian with the heir to the Tsarevich and the Austrian with the Archduke, made this review of the allied 80,000th army.
From early morning, smartly cleaned and cleaned troops began to move, lining up on the field in front of the fortress. Then thousands of feet and bayonets with fluttering banners moved and, at the command of the officers, stopped, turned around and formed up at intervals, bypassing other similar masses of infantry in different uniforms; then with measured stomp and rattling sounded elegant cavalry in blue, red, green embroidered uniforms with embroidered musicians in front, on black, red, gray horses; then, stretching out with its copper sound of trembling on carriages, cleaned, shiny cannons and with its own smell of overcoats, artillery crawled between the infantry and cavalry and was placed in designated places. Not only generals in full full dress uniform, with impossibly thick and thin waists and reddened, propped up collars, necks, in scarves and all orders; not only pomaded, dressed-up officers, but every soldier, with a fresh, washed and shaved face and cleaned up to the last possible shine with ammunition, each horse, groomed so that, like satin, its wool shone on it and hair to hair lay wetted mane, - everyone felt that something serious, significant and solemn was happening. Each general and soldier felt their insignificance, conscious of themselves as a grain of sand in this sea of ​​people, and together they felt their power, conscious of being part of this huge whole.
Intense chores and efforts began from early in the morning, and at 10 o'clock everything came into the required order. Rows lined up on the vast field. The whole army was stretched out in three lines. Cavalry in front, artillery in back, infantry in back.
Between each row of troops there was, as it were, a street. Three parts of this army were sharply separated from one another: the combat Kutuzovskaya (in which the Pavlogradites stood on the right flank in the front line), army and guard regiments that had come from Russia, and the Austrian army. But all stood under one line, under one command and in the same order.
As the wind swept through the leaves, an excited whisper: “They are coming! they're going!" Frightened voices were heard, and a wave of fuss over the last preparations ran through all the troops.
Ahead of Olmutz appeared a moving group. And at the same time, although the day was calm, a light stream of wind ran through the army and slightly shook the weather vanes of the lance and the unfurled banners that were rattled on their shafts. It seemed that the army itself, with this slight movement, expressed its joy at the approach of sovereigns. One voice was heard: "Attention!" Then, like roosters at dawn, the voices repeated in different directions. And everything went quiet.
In the dead silence only the sound of horses could be heard. It was the suite of emperors. The sovereigns drove up to the flank and the sounds of the trumpeters of the first cavalry regiment were heard, playing a general march. It seemed that it was not the trumpeters who played it, but the army itself, rejoicing at the approach of the sovereign, naturally made these sounds. Because of these sounds, one young, gentle voice of Emperor Alexander was clearly heard. He said hello, and the first regiment barked: Hurrah! so deafening, long, joyful that the people themselves were horrified by the number and strength of the bulk that they made up.
Rostov, standing in the forefront of the Kutuzov army, to which the sovereign approached the first, experienced the same feeling that every person in this army experienced - a feeling of self-forgetfulness, a proud consciousness of power and a passionate attraction to the one who was the cause of this triumph.
He felt that it depended on one word of this man that this whole mass (and he, associated with it, an insignificant grain of sand) would go into fire and into water, to crime, to death or to the greatest heroism, and therefore he could not help but tremble and freeze at the sight of that approaching word.
– Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah! - thundered from all sides, and one regiment after another received the sovereign with the sounds of a general march; then Hurrah! ... general march and again Urra! and hooray!! which, growing stronger and stronger, merged into a deafening rumble.
Until the sovereign arrived, each regiment, in its silence and immobility, seemed like a lifeless body; as soon as the sovereign was compared with him, the regiment revived and thundered, joining the roar of the entire line that the sovereign had already passed. At the terrible, deafening sound of these voices, in the midst of the masses of the army, motionless, as if petrified in their quadrangles, carelessly, but symmetrically and, most importantly, hundreds of horsemen of the retinue moved freely and in front of them were two people - emperors. The restrained passionate attention of all this mass of people was undividedly focused on them.
Handsome, young Emperor Alexander, in a horse guards uniform, in a triangular hat, put on from the field, with his pleasant face and sonorous, soft voice attracted all the power of attention.
Rostov stood not far from the trumpeters and from afar with his keen eyes recognized the sovereign and followed his approach. When the sovereign approached at a distance of 20 steps and Nicholas clearly, to every detail, examined the beautiful, young and happy face of the emperor, he experienced a feeling of tenderness and delight, the like of which he had not experienced before. Everything - every feature, every movement - seemed to him charming in the sovereign.
Stopping in front of the Pavlograd regiment, the sovereign said something in French to the Austrian emperor and smiled.
Seeing this smile, Rostov himself involuntarily began to smile and felt an even stronger surge of love for his sovereign. He wanted to show his love for the sovereign in some way. He knew it was impossible and he wanted to cry.
The emperor called the regimental commander and said a few words to him.
"My God! what would happen to me if the sovereign turned to me! - thought Rostov: - I would die of happiness.
The emperor also addressed the officers:
- All, gentlemen (every word was heard by Rostov, like a sound from heaven), I thank you from the bottom of my heart.
How happy Rostov would be if he could now die for his tsar!
- You have earned the banners of St. George and will be worthy of them.
"Only die, die for him!" thought Rostov.
The sovereign also said something that Rostov did not hear, and the soldiers, pushing their chests, shouted: Hurrah! Rostov also shouted, bending down to the saddle, as much as he could, wanting to hurt himself with this cry, only to fully express his delight in the sovereign.
The sovereign stood for several seconds against the hussars, as if he were indecisive.
“How could the sovereign be in indecision?” thought Rostov, and then even this indecision seemed to Rostov majestic and charming, like everything that the sovereign did.
The indecision of the sovereign lasted for an instant. The leg of the sovereign, with a narrow, sharp toe of the boot, as was worn at that time, touched the groin of the english bay mare on which he rode; the hand of the sovereign in a white glove picked up the reins, he set off, accompanied by a randomly swaying sea of ​​\u200b\u200badjutants. He rode further and further, stopping at other regiments, and, finally, only his white plume was visible to Rostov from behind the retinue surrounding the emperors.
Among the masters of the retinue, Rostov noticed Bolkonsky, lazily and dissolutely sitting on a horse. Rostov remembered his yesterday's quarrel with him and the question presented itself, should - or should not call him. “Of course, it shouldn’t,” thought Rostov now ... “And is it worth thinking and talking about it at such a moment as now? In a moment of such a feeling of love, delight and selflessness, what do all our quarrels and insults mean!? I love everyone, I forgive everyone now, ”thought Rostov.
When the sovereign traveled around almost all the regiments, the troops began to pass by him in a ceremonial march, and Rostov, on a Bedouin newly bought from Denisov, drove through the castle of his squadron, that is, alone and completely in front of the sovereign.
Before reaching the sovereign, Rostov, an excellent rider, twice spurred his Bedouin and brought him happily to that furious gait of a lynx, which the heated Bedouin paced. Bending his foaming muzzle to his chest, separating his tail and as if flying in the air and not touching the ground, gracefully and high tossing and changing legs, the Bedouin, who also felt the sovereign's gaze on himself, passed admirably.
Rostov himself, throwing his legs back and tucking up his stomach and feeling like one piece with a horse, with a frowning but blissful face, the devil, as Denisov said, drove past the sovereign.
- Well done Pavlograd people! - said the sovereign.
"My God! How happy I would be if he ordered me to throw myself into the fire now, ”thought Rostov.
When the review was over, the officers, who had come again and the Kutuzovskys, began to converge in groups and began talking about awards, about the Austrians and their uniforms, about their front, about Bonaparte and how bad it would be for him now, especially when the Essen corps approached, and Prussia will take our side.
But most of all in all the circles they talked about Emperor Alexander, conveyed his every word, movement and admired him.
Everyone wanted only one thing: under the leadership of the sovereign, as soon as possible to go against the enemy. Under the command of the sovereign himself, it was impossible not to defeat anyone, as Rostov and most of the officers thought after the review.
After the review, everyone was more confident in victory than they could have been after two battles won.

The next day after the show, Boris, dressed in the best uniform and instructed by the wishes of success from his comrade Berg, went to Olmutz to Bolkonsky, wanting to take advantage of his affection and arrange for himself the best position, especially the position of an adjutant with an important person, which seemed to him especially tempting in the army . “It’s good for Rostov, to whom his father sends 10 thousand each, to talk about how he doesn’t want to bow to anyone and won’t become a lackey to anyone; but I, who have nothing but my head, have to make my career and not miss opportunities, but use them.
In Olmutz, he did not find Prince Andrei that day. But the sight of Olmutz, where the main apartment stood, the diplomatic corps and both emperors lived with their retinues - courtiers, close associates, only strengthened his desire to belong to this supreme world.
He did not know anyone, and, despite his dandy guards uniform, all these top people, scurrying through the streets, in dandy carriages, plumes, ribbons and orders, courtiers and military men, seemed to stand so immeasurably higher than he, a guards officer, that they could not only did not want, but also could not recognize its existence. In the premises of Commander-in-Chief Kutuzov, where he asked Bolkonsky, all these adjutants and even batmen looked at him as if they wanted to convince him that there were a lot of officers like him hanging around here and that they were all very tired. Despite this, or rather because of this, the next day, on the 15th, after dinner he again went to Olmutz and, entering the house occupied by Kutuzov, asked Bolkonsky. Prince Andrei was at home, and Boris was led into a large hall, in which, probably, they used to dance, but now there were five beds, heterogeneous furniture: a table, chairs and clavichords. One adjutant, closer to the door, in a Persian robe, sat at the table and wrote. The other, red, fat Nesvitsky, lay on the bed with his hands under his head, and laughed with the officer who sat down beside him. The third played the Viennese waltz on the clavichords, the fourth lay on these clavichords and sang along with him. Bolkonsky was not there. None of these gentlemen, noticing Boris, did not change his position. The one who wrote, and to whom Boris addressed, turned around annoyedly and told him that Bolkonsky was on duty, and that he should go to the left through the door, to the reception room, if he needed to see him. Boris thanked and went to the reception. There were about ten officers and generals in the waiting room.

Normans is one of the names of the northern peoples. So the inhabitants of Central and Southern Europe in the VIII-XI centuries called the detachments of fierce warriors who sailed from cold countries. The raids were regular, the detachments turned into armies, and as a result the map of Europe was redrawn.

Numerous synonyms

The huge empire of the Franks, created by the representative of the Carolingian dynasty, Charlemagne, disappeared from the face of the Earth. England was invaded. The Spaniards, to whose country the robbers also reached, called them pagan monsters - madhouses, putting all the horror in front of them into the name. The British called them askemans, that is, sailing on boats made of strong ash. IN Ancient Rus' they were called Varangians. They are also known under the name "Vikings" (later it was proved that the Normans themselves called the term "Viking" a sea voyage). We can say that the Normans are conquerors, as the Frankish poet said, "brave to excess." Thanks to the audacity, fearlessness, agility of the warriors, their raids were always successful, but they were distinguished by cruelty. Their fame extended far - all European rulers were afraid of them, but they also dreamed of having them in their service.

Warriors from generation to generation

The Normans were born warriors. Not only the harsh nature and living conditions on the shores of the northern seas made them so. The religion and laws of the country were essentially militaristic. Only warriors who glorified themselves in battles got into the happy afterlife, where they will forever be appeased by the Valkyries. Even a wounded and dying fighter could not leave the battlefield and had to kill enemies to the last breath. And then Odin himself (the supreme deity) appeared behind him and took him to the fabulous heavenly country of Volhall for eternal bliss. The Normans are people who do not know pity either for enemies or for themselves. Their laws were astoundingly cruel. According to one of them, weak old people and handicapped children (even with minor deviations) were killed. The norms of their life evolved over the centuries.

Reasons for raids

The meager nature, which did not make it possible to grow the necessary amount of food, forced them to abuse their loved ones, determined the need for raids on the nearby fertile and rich territories, which were located both in the south and in the east and west. The conquerors did not disdain the lifeless northern territories, they actively settled them, forming their colonies there. Rich lands were beyond the seas, and the expanses of water became a second home for the Normans. They had excellent ships, stable and hardy. The warriors were also rowers, they were not at all afraid of the sea and sailed far inland. Long before Columbus, they discovered America, however, North.

Discipline and subordination

The Normans are magnificent sailors, who sailed well both at oars and under sail, with and against the wind. Beautiful warriors and fearless pioneers, the fear of which reached the most remote corners of Europe, were surrounded by legends. The most talented, brave and ruthless warriors became barsecs, who were considered werewolves. They were invincible. Strict discipline was observed in the army, unconditional subordination of ordinary soldiers to superiors in rank, there was a code of honor. They had stubbornness in achieving the set goal and composure, not allowing to turn off the intended path. The character was "Nordic, seasoned." Most importantly, they had an ultimate goal - to create their own rich state, and all methods were good for that. But over time they changed.

The beginning of a wide expansion

The history of the Normans (and there is documentary evidence of this) dates back to 789. Three ships moored on the shores of England, on which were the Danes from Harland, subjects of King Beothric. And after the devastation of the monastery of Lindisfarne, which followed 4 years later and received great publicity, several more raids were undertaken before the end of the century. This was followed by a 40-year relative calm. But in 835, with the destruction of Sheppey, an English island off the coast, it all began. The annual devastating campaigns of the Normans to the shores of nearby European states followed. On some of the English islands, the Vikings, who undertook campaigns mainly in the spring and summer, wintered.

Goals have been achieved

The Anglo-Saxons called them pagans, or northern people. The name "Normans" was given to them by the Franks. In 855-856, a huge army of pagans landed on the coast of East Anglia forever. But England was completely conquered only in 1066 by the Duke of Normandy (the northern region of France) William, who is known in history as the Conqueror. That is, at first the Normans raided and even Paris, founded their state on the territory of the Frankish empire that collapsed under their blows, and from there they attacked England.

The history of the Normans with accession to the English and Sicilian thrones, in general, ends. Yes, and they were then called Normans. The raids are over, because the warriors have become farmers. Fertile land was now enough for them, and it was possible to secure a decent life for themselves without resorting to weapons.

Born to win

The Norman conquests spanned three centuries. As a result, parts of Ireland and Scotland were conquered in the 9th century. Constant attempts to conquer England led to the fact that in the 9th-10th centuries the northern, eastern and central parts of the country were occupied by the Normans. And the conquered territory was called Danelare (“Area of ​​Danish law”).

They made raids on Frisia - the coastal region between present-day Denmark and the Netherlands. Norman conquests extended beyond Spain and Portugal. In 859, a large flotilla of more than 60 ships, packed full of loot in Spain, arrived on the coast of North Africa. From 844, raids on Spain were regular, for a time they even managed to capture Seville.

They had access to any territory

During all their campaigns, the Viking Normans very successfully adapted to the environment and assimilated with the local population. They penetrated into southern Italy at the beginning of the 11th century, and by 1071 it all fell under the rule of the Normans.

A very important role went to the Vikings. They actively participated in the creation. Along the Volkhov, Lovat, Dnieper and Volga rivers, the Norman Vikings reached the Black Sea and approached the shores. Some of them, engaged in trade, reached Baghdad along the Volga and the Caspian Sea. Not only warm lands beckoned the Normans. The famous Viking in 985 founded a colony in Greenland, which, despite the very harsh climate and difficult living conditions, lasted 400 years. Sagas are dedicated to the famous leader of the settlers, which indicate that one of the sons of Eric the Red visited North America around the year 1000.

Raids are not an end in themselves

For the Vikings, especially in the 10th-11th centuries, raids were not an end in themselves. In many areas they settled, forming states, regions, colonies. Part settled in Scotland, part in southern Italy. The state of the Normans was created in Sicily, in France, in England. Somewhere the result was achieved by the direct seizure of the country and the overthrow of the legitimate monarch, as in England. The troops of the last king of the Anglo-Saxons, Harold Godwinson, were defeated at Hastings. The throne goes to the winner William the Conqueror. In the county of Aversa, the first Norman state in southern Italy arose. It was followed by Melfi and Solerno, Calabria, Apulia and Naples. Later, all these entities were united into the Kingdom of Sicily. As a rule, the Vikings first entered the service of the local nobility, and then overthrew them.

Rise of Normandy

It should be noted that the Normans possessed a managerial genius. They did not destroy the previous structures of power, they took the best of what had been achieved. The amazing ability of the Vikings to adapt already formed legal and cultural institutions to their own needs is noted. They respected the customs and achievements of the conquered peoples. The Norman state in France, called Normandy, began with the occupation of these lands in the 9th century by the Norwegian and Danish Vikings. They were led by Hrolf the Pedestrian, so named because no horse could carry his huge body, and he was forced to move on foot. The Normans forced Charles III the Simple to recognize the land at the mouth of the Seine as their property. Hrolf recognized himself as a vassal of Charles, married his daughter and adopted the Christian name Rollon. The Normans who arrived with him converted to Christianity and willingly mixed with the local population. Taking all the best from feudal France, the Normans created a good state power structure both in Normandy and in England and Sicily.

Revived popularity

The meaning of the word "Normans" is the simplest. It is translated from the Scandinavian northman literally - "northern man". As already noted, these peoples, who lived in Scandinavia, became widely known due to their wide expansion in the 8th-11th centuries. The Normans combined warriors, sailors, merchants, discoverers and travelers.

Naturally, the great people had their own traditions, religion, literature. The culture of the Normans is a branch of the ancient Germanic culture. Impressions of numerous campaigns were passed from mouth to mouth, sagas were composed. In special honor were the poets called skalds. The religion of the Vikings, captured in myths, brought to our days the names of pagan gods - the main deity Odin and 12 more - Thor, Loki, Bragi, Heimndall and others. There were also 4 goddesses - Frigg, Freya, Idun, Sif. Mythology was formed from the 5th century until the adoption of Christianity. The “Elder Edda” written in verse and the prose “Younger Edda” are the main sources Throughout the territory where the Normans lived or their paths, steles carved with runic signs have survived to this day, archaeologists find jewelry and talismans. Everything related to the Normans has spawned a powerful pop culture these days - hundreds of video games, cartoons, popular novels.

Another name

Natives of Scandinavia had many names, in each country they were called differently - in Rus' they were given the name "Varangians". The Normans, who came to Rus' from the north, were hired to serve the Russian princes, who willingly became related to them, since the blood of Rurik flowed in their veins, who founded in the 9th century He was the founder of the princely family, which later turned into the first Russian royal dynasty. The Normans in Russia have always been personified with powerful, invincible warriors. Therefore, the warship was given the name "Varyag", and the words of the song, praising courage and loyalty to the Fatherland, are known by many even now.

from the Scandinavian northman - northern man) - the name under which in the West. The peoples of Scandinavia were known to Europe during their wide expansion at the end of the 8th - ser. 11th century (in Scandinavia itself, the participants in the campaigns were called Vikings (the origin of the term remains unclear); in Rus', the N. were known as the Varangians). End period 8 - ser. 11th century in the history of Sev. Europe was named in historiography. "Viking Age" The reasons for the expansion, which took various forms (search for new lands and resettlement, predatory attacks, piracy and large military campaigns, trade trips), were diverse: the decomposition of the communal-clan system among the Swedes, Danes and Norwegians was accompanied by the strengthening of the warlike nobility, which was looking for prey and glory; many bonds left their homeland as a result of overpopulation of the coastal districts of the Scandinavian Peninsula and the lack of land suitable for cultivation. The progress of shipbuilding among the Scandinavians made it possible to sail N. not only along the Baltic. sea, but also in the waters of the North. Atlantic and Mediterranean. Modern scholars emphasize the role of trade in the life of N. 9-11 centuries. Archeol. finds in the first scands that appeared at that time. cities - centers of transit trade (Birka in Sweden, Haitabu in South. Denmark, Skiringsal in South. Norway), an extraordinary abundance of hoards of coins from Arab. Caliphate, Byzantium, Western countries. Europe, the wealth of burials, in which there are things from the countries of the East and West, as well as letters. sources testify that, despite the piracy and attacks of N., significant things happened during this period. revival of trading. connections in Sev. Europe. The first period of N.'s expansion (late 8th-9th centuries) was characterized by scattered Danish expeditions against the Frankish state, Norwegian attacks on the shores of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and their migrations to the Orkney, Faroe, Hebrides, and Shetland Islands, somewhat later - to Iceland. The Normans appear. squads and settlers in Rus'. From the end of the 9th c. France and England are attacked by larger armies of N., from robbery and tribute collection to the settlement of the conquered territories: in the North. French N. create the duchy of Normandy (911), settle in the coastal settlements of Ireland, conquer the North. and North-East. England (the areas of "dat. law" - Denlo). The population of the countries attacked by N. had to pay off them with huge indemnities (“Danish money”). In the beginning. 11th c. all of England was subject to dates. kings Sven Forkbeard and Canute I the Great; Despite the defeat in Ireland (1014), N. retained their positions in it until the 12th century. At the end of the 10th c. the Icelanders discovered Greenland, populating some of its districts, from where they made distant sea raids to the west, discovered the coast of the North. America (the so-called Vinland, Markland, Helluland). N. attacked Spain and Italy, and their descendants - the Normans from the North. France subjugated England (see Norman Conquest of England 1066) and founded in South. Italy has its own kingdom (c. 1130; see Kingdom of Sicily). OK. ser. 11th c. N.'s campaigns ceased, which is primarily due to the social changes that occurred in Scandal. countries. In the 10-11 centuries. the prerequisites for feudalism were taking shape in N., and queens were beginning to become stronger. power. However, the nobility, which became rich and strengthened during the campaigns, was not feudal either in the nature of its wealth (jewelry and other booty, slaves, ships, livestock), or in society. position (the bulk of the population of Scandinavian countries were free bonds). The development of large-scale landownership is making progress in these countries after the cessation of foreign trade. expansion. According to the history of N.'s campaigns, there are numerous. letters. Source: Frankish, Anglo-Saxon, German, Irish. annals, messages arab. travelers and geographers, Byzantium. chronicles; interesting information contains scand. runic. inscriptions. Archaeological data are of great importance. Especially important are the finds of ships of the 9th century. in "princely" burials in Southern Norway (in Gokstad, Tun and Oseberg; discoveries of the late 19th - early 20th centuries), military. camp con. 10 or early 11th century in Jutland and on the islands of Zeeland and Funen (excavations of the 40-50s of the 20th century); mountain research. settlements in Birka, Khaitabu and Skiringsal, treasures and burials in them (works by X. Arbman, G. Yankun, C. Blindheim); publication of a review of coin hoards on about. Gotland (M. Stenberger); research of the burial complex in Jelling (Jutland) (mounds and stones with runic inscriptions in memory of the Danish kings of the 10th century; last excavations of the 40s), excavations of the Norwegian. settlements on the Shetland Islands (in the locality of Yarlshov, publication 1956); new publ. runic inscriptions and drawings on stones and crosses. In a one-sided image of the medieval Western European. N. chroniclers appear exclusively as savages, robbers, destroyers, and enemies of Christianity. But the "Viking Age" was characterized by a mean. the flowering of N. culture (poetry of skalds, mythology, dynamic development and diversity of fine arts, an abundance of runic inscriptions) and the rise of material production, expressed in the development of new lands, the growth of craft, and shipbuilding. Lit .: Gurevich A. Ya., Campaigns of the Vikings, M., 1966; Steenstrup I. C. H. R., Normannerne, bd 1-4, Kbh., 1876-82; Kendrick T. D., A history of the Vikings, L., 1930; Viking antiquities in Great Britain and Ireland, ed. by H. Shetelig, pt 1-6, Oslo, 1940-54; Lauring P., Vikingerne. Kbh., 1956; Hamilton J. R. C., Excavations at Jarlshof, Shetland, Edin., 1956; Blindheim Ch., The Market place in Skiringssal, "Acta Archaeologica", Kbh., 1960, v. 31; Bründsted J., Vikingerne, Kbh., 1960; Oxenstierna E., Die Wikinger, Stuttg., (1959); Lewis A.R., The Northern seas. Shipping and commerce in Northern Europe A. D. 300-1100, Princeton, 1958; Arbman H., Birka, (bd) 1-2, Uppsala, 1940-43; his, The Vikings, L., 1961; Stenberger M., Die Schatzfunde Gotlands der Wikingerzeit, Bd 1-2, Stockh.-Lund, 1947-58; Jankuhn H., Die fr?hmittelalterlichen Seehandelspl?tze im Nord-und Ostseeraum, in: Studien zu den Anf?ngen des europ?ischen St?dtewesens, Lindau-Konstanz, 1958 (Vortr?ge und Forschungen, Bd 4) ; Nörlund P., Trelleborg, Kbh., 1948; Askeberg F., Norden och kontinenten i gammal tid, Uppsala, 1944; Osebergfundet, utg. A. W. Brägger, HJ. Falk, H. Schetelig, bd 1-3,. 5, Oslo, 1917-28; Ingstad H., Landet under eidarstjernen, Oslo, 1959; Sawyer P. H., The age lof the Vikings, L., 1962. A. Ya. Gurevich. Moscow. -***-***-***- Normans

VIKINGS (Normans), sea robbers, immigrants from Scandinavia, who committed in the 9th-11th centuries. hikes up to 8000 km long, maybe even longer distances. These bold and fearless people in the east reached the borders Persia, and in the west - the New World.

The word "Viking" comes from the Old Norse "Vikingr". Regarding its origin, there are a number of hypotheses, the most convincing of which raises it to "vik" - a fiord, a bay. The word "Viking" (lit. "man from the fiord") was used to refer to robbers who operated in coastal waters, hiding in secluded bays and bays. They were known in Scandinavia long before they became notorious in Europe. The French called the Vikings Normans or various options this word (Norsmans, Nortmanns - lit. "people from the north"); the British called all Scandinavians indiscriminately Danes, and the Slavs, Greeks, Khazars, Arabs called the Swedish Vikings Rus or Vikings.

Wherever the Vikings went - to the British Isles, to France, Spain, Italy or North Africa - they ruthlessly plundered and seized foreign lands. In some cases, they settled in conquered countries and became their rulers. The Danish Vikings conquered England for some time, settled in Scotland and Ireland. Together they conquered a part of France known as Normandy. The Norwegian Vikings and their descendants established colonies on the North Atlantic islands of Iceland and Greenland and founded a settlement on the coast of Newfoundland in North America, however, which did not last long. The Swedish Vikings began to rule in the east of the Baltic. They spread widely throughout Rus' and, descending along the rivers to the Black and Caspian Seas, even threatened Constantinople and some regions of Persia. The Vikings were the last Germanic barbarian conquerors and the first European pioneer navigators.

There are different interpretations of the reasons for the violent outburst of Viking activity in the 9th century. There is evidence that Scandinavia was overpopulated and many Scandinavians went abroad in search of their fortune. The rich but undefended cities and monasteries of the southern and western neighbors were easy prey. It was hardly possible to get a rebuff from the scattered kingdoms in the British Isles or the weakened empire of Charlemagne, absorbed by dynastic strife. During the Viking Age, national monarchies gradually consolidated in Norway, Sweden and Denmark. Ambitious leaders and powerful clans fought for power. The defeated leaders and their supporters, as well as the younger sons of the victorious leaders, shamelessly accepted unhindered robbery as a way of life. Energetic young men from influential families usually gained authority through participation in one or more campaigns. Many Scandinavians engaged in robbery in the summer, and then turned into ordinary landowners. However, the Vikings were attracted not only by the lure of prey. The prospect of establishing trade opened the way to wealth and power. In particular, immigrants from Sweden controlled trade routes in Rus'.

The English term "Viking" is derived from the Old Norse word vkingr, which could have multiple meanings. The most acceptable, apparently, is the origin from the word vk - bay, or bay. Therefore, the word vkingr is translated as "man from the bay." The term was used to refer to robbers hiding in coastal waters long before the Vikings gained notoriety in the outside world. However, not all Scandinavians were sea robbers, and the terms "Viking" and "Scandinavian" cannot be considered as synonyms. The French usually called the Vikings Normans, and the British indiscriminately referred to all Scandinavians as Danes. Slavs, Khazars, Arabs and Greeks, who communicated with the Swedish Vikings, called them Russ or Varangians.

LIFESTYLE

Abroad, the Vikings acted as robbers, conquerors and traders, and at home they mainly cultivated the land, hunted, fished and raised cattle. The independent peasant, who worked alone or with relatives, formed the basis of Scandinavian society. No matter how small his allotment was, he remained free and was not tied like a serf to the land that belonged to another person. In all strata of Scandinavian society, family ties were strongly developed, and in important matters its members usually acted together with relatives. The clans jealously guarded the good names of their fellow tribesmen, and trampling on the honor of one of them often led to cruel civil strife.

Women in the family played an important role. They could own property, decide on their own about marriage and divorce from an unsuitable spouse. However, outside the family hearth, women's participation in public life remained negligible.

Food. In Viking times, most people ate two meals a day. The main products were meat, fish and grains of cereals. Meat and fish were usually boiled, rarely fried. For storage, these products were dried and salted. From cereals, rye, oats, barley and several types of wheat were used. Usually porridge was cooked from their grains, but sometimes bread was baked. Vegetables and fruits were rarely eaten. From the drinks consumed milk, beer, fermented honey drink, and in the upper classes of society - imported wine.

Cloth. Peasant clothing consisted of a long woolen shirt, short baggy trousers, stockings and a rectangular cape. Vikings from the upper classes wore long pants, socks and capes in bright colors. Woolen mittens and hats were in use, as well as fur hats and even felt hats. Women from high society usually wore long clothes, consisting of a bodice and a skirt. Thin chains hung from buckles on clothes, to which scissors and a case for needles, a knife, keys and other small items were attached. Married women put their hair in a bun and wore conical white linen caps. Unmarried girls had their hair tied up with a ribbon.

Dwelling. Peasant dwellings were usually simple one-room houses, built either from tightly fitted vertical beams, or more often from wicker wicker coated with clay. Wealthy people usually lived in a large rectangular house, which housed numerous relatives. In heavily forested Scandinavia, such houses were built of wood, often in combination with clay, while in Iceland and Greenland, in conditions of a shortage of wood, local stone was widely used. Walls 90 cm thick or more were folded there. The roofs were usually covered with peat. The central living room of the house was low and dark, with a long hearth in the middle. They cooked food, ate and slept there. Sometimes inside the house, along the walls, pillars were installed in a row to support the roof, and the side rooms fenced off in this way were used as bedrooms.

Literature and art. The Vikings valued skill in combat, but they also revered literature, history, and art.

Viking literature existed in oral form, and only some time after the end of the Viking Age did the first written works appear. The runic alphabet was then used only for inscriptions on tombstones, for magic spells and short messages. But in Iceland, a rich folklore has been preserved. It was written down at the end of the Viking Age using the Latin alphabet by scribes who wanted to perpetuate the exploits of their ancestors.

Among the treasures of Icelandic literature stand out the long prose narratives known as sagas. They are divided into three main types. In the most important, the so-called. family sagas describe real characters from the Viking Age. Several dozen family sagas have survived, five of them are comparable in volume to large novels. The other two types are the historical sagas that tell of the Norse kings and the settlement of Iceland, and the fictional adventure sagas of the late Viking Age that reflect the influence Byzantine Empire and India. Another major prose work that appeared in Iceland is the Younger Edda, a collection of myths recorded by Snorri Sturluson, an Icelandic historian and politician of the 13th century.

The Vikings had a high regard for poetry. The Icelandic hero and adventurer Egil Skallagrimsson was as proud of being a poet as he was of his accomplishments in battle. Poets-improvisers (skalds) sang the virtues of jarls (leaders) and princes in complex poetic stanzas. Much simpler than the poetry of the skalds were songs about the gods and heroes of the past, preserved in a collection known as the Elder Edda.

Viking art was primarily decorative. The predominant motifs - whimsical animals and energetic abstract compositions of intertwining ribbons - were used in wood carvings, fine gold and silver jewelry, and decorations on runestones and monuments that were placed to commemorate important events.

Religion. In the beginning, the Vikings worshiped pagan gods and goddesses. The most important of these were Thor, Din, Frey and the goddess Freyja, of lesser importance were Njord, Ull, Balder and several other household gods. The gods were worshiped in temples or in sacred forests, groves and near springs. The Vikings also believed in many supernatural creatures: trolls, elves, giants, water and magical inhabitants of forests, hills and rivers.

Bloody sacrifices were often made. Sacrificial animals were usually eaten by the priest and his entourage at feasts held in temples. There were also human sacrifices, even ritual killings of kings to ensure the welfare of the country. In addition to priests and priestesses, there were sorcerers who practiced black magic.

The people of the Viking Age attached great importance to luck as a type of spiritual power inherent in any person, but especially leaders and kings. Nevertheless, that era was characterized by a pessimistic and fatalistic attitude. Fate was presented as an independent factor standing above gods and people. According to some poets and philosophers, people and gods were doomed to go through a powerful struggle and cataclysm, known as Ragnark (Isl. - "end of the world").

Christianity slowly spread to the north and presented an attractive alternative to paganism. In Denmark and Norway, Christianity was established in the 10th century; the Icelandic leaders adopted new religion in 1000, and Sweden - in the 11th century, however, in the north of this country, pagan beliefs persisted until the beginning of the 12th century.

MILITARY ART

Viking expeditions. Detailed information about the campaigns of the Vikings is known mainly from the written reports of the victims, who spared no colors to describe the devastation that the Scandinavians carried with them. The first campaigns of the Vikings were made on the principle of "hit and run". They appeared without warning from the sea in light, high-speed vessels and struck at weakly guarded objects known for their riches. The Vikings cut down a few defenders with swords, and the rest of the inhabitants were enslaved, seized valuables, and everything else was set on fire. Gradually, they began to use horses in their campaigns.

Weapon. Viking weapons were bows and arrows, as well as a variety of swords, spears and battle axes. Swords and spearheads and arrowheads were usually made of iron or steel. For bows, yew or elm wood was preferred, and braided hair was usually used as a bowstring.

Viking shields were round or oval in shape. Usually, light pieces of linden wood, upholstered along the edge and across with iron stripes, went to the shields. In the center of the shield was a pointed plaque. For protection, warriors also wore metal or leather helmets, often with horns, and warriors from the nobility often wore chain mail.

Viking ships. The highest technical achievement of the Vikings was their warships. These boats, kept in exemplary order, were often described with great love in the poetry of the Vikings and were a source of their pride. The narrow frame of such a vessel was very convenient for approaching the shore and quickly passing through rivers and lakes. The lighter vessels were especially suited to surprise attacks; they could be dragged from one river to another to bypass rapids, waterfalls, dams and fortifications. The disadvantage of these ships was that they were not sufficiently adapted for long voyages on the high seas, which was compensated by the navigational skill of the Vikings.

Viking boats differed in the number of pairs of rowing oars, large ships - in the number of rowing benches. 13 pairs of oars determined the minimum size of a warship. The very first ships were designed for 40-80 people each, and a large keel ship of the 11th century. accommodated several hundred people. Such large combat units exceeded 46 m in length.

Ships were often built from boards laid in rows with overlapping and fastened with curved frames. Above the waterline, most warships were brightly painted. Carved dragon heads, sometimes gilded, adorned the prows of ships. The same decoration could be on the stern, and in some cases there was a wriggling dragon's tail. When sailing in the waters of Scandinavia, these decorations were usually removed so as not to frighten the good spirits. Often, when approaching the port, shields were hung in a row on the sides of the ships, but this was not allowed on the high seas.

Viking ships moved with the help of sails and oars. A simple square-shaped sail, made of coarse canvas, was often painted in stripes and checks. The mast could be shortened and even removed altogether. With the help of skillful devices, the captain could navigate the ship against the wind. The ships were steered by a paddle-shaped rudder mounted on the stern on the starboard side.

Several surviving Viking ships are exhibited in museums in the Scandinavian countries. One of the most famous, discovered in 1880 in Gokstad (Norway), dates back to about 900 AD. It reaches a length of 23.3 m and a width of 5.3 m. The ship had a mast and 32 oars, it had 32 shields. In places, elegant carved decorations have been preserved. The navigational capabilities of such a vessel were demonstrated in 1893, when its accurately made copy sailed from Norway to Newfoundland in four weeks. This copy is now in Lincoln Park in Chicago.

STORY

Vikings in Western Europe. Information about the first significant Viking raid dates back to 793 AD, when the monastery at Lindisfarne on Holy Island off the east coast of Scotland was sacked and burned. Nine years later, the monastery at Iona in the Hebrides was devastated. These were the pirate raids of the Norwegian Vikings.

Soon the Vikings moved on to seizing large areas. Late 9th - early 10th c. they took possession of Shetland, Orkney and the Hebrides and settled on far north Scotland. In the 11th century for unknown reasons, they left these lands. The Shetland Islands remained in the hands of the Norwegians until the 16th century.

Norwegian Viking raids on Ireland began in the 9th century. In 830 they established a wintering settlement in Ireland, and by 840 they had taken control of large areas of that country. The Viking positions were mostly strong in the south and east. This situation continued until 1170, when the British invaded Ireland and drove the Vikings out of there.

It was mainly the Danish Vikings who penetrated England. In 835 they made a campaign at the mouth of the Thames, in 851 they settled on the Isles of Sheppey and Thanet in the estuary of the Thames, and from 865 they began the conquest of East Anglia. King Alfred the Great of Wessex eventually halted their advance, but was forced to cede lands north of the line from London to the northeast edge of Wales. This territory, called the Danelag (Danish law area), was gradually reconquered by the British in the next century, but repeated Viking raids in the early 11th century. led to the restoration of the power of their king Cnut and his sons, this time over all of England. Ultimately, in 1042, as a result of a dynastic marriage, the throne passed to the British. However, even after that, Danish raids continued until the end of the century.

Norman raids on the coastal regions of the Frankish state began at the end of the 8th century. Gradually, the Scandinavians gained a foothold at the mouth of the Seine and other rivers of northern France. In 911, the French king Charles III the Simple concluded a forced peace with the leader of the Normans, Rollo, and granted him Rouen with the adjacent lands, to which new territories were added a few years later. The Duchy of Rollo attracted a lot of immigrants from Scandinavia and soon received the name Normandy. The Normans adopted the language, religion and customs of the Franks.

In 1066, Duke William of Normandy, who went down in history as William the Conqueror, the illegitimate son of Robert I, a descendant of Rollon and the fifth Duke of Normandy, invaded England, defeated King Harold (and killed him) at the Battle of Hastings and took the English throne. The Normans undertook aggressive campaigns to Wales and Ireland, many of them settled in Scotland.

At the beginning of the 11th c. the Normans penetrated into southern Italy, where, as hired soldiers, they participated in hostilities against the Arabs in Salerno. Then new settlers began to arrive here from Scandinavia, who established themselves in small towns, taking them by force from their former employers and their neighbors. The sons of Count Tancred of Hauteville, who captured Apulia in 1042, enjoyed the loudest fame among Norman adventurers. In 1053 they defeated the army of Pope Leo IX, forcing him to make peace with them and give Apulia and Calabria as a fief. By 1071, all of southern Italy fell under the rule of the Normans. One of the sons of Tancred, Duke Robert, nicknamed Guiscard ("Sly"), supported the pope in the fight against Emperor Henry IV. Robert's brother Roger I started a war with the Arabs in Sicily. In 1061 he took Messina, but only 13 years later the island was under the rule of the Normans. Roger II united the Norman possessions in southern Italy and Sicily under his rule, and in 1130 Pope Anaclet II declared him king of Sicily, Calabria and Capua.

In Italy, as elsewhere, the Normans demonstrated their amazing ability to adapt and assimilate in a foreign cultural environment. The Normans played an important role in the crusades, in the history of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and other states formed by the crusaders in the East.

Vikings in Iceland and Greenland. Iceland was discovered by Irish monks, and then at the end of the 9th century. inhabited by Norwegian Vikings. The first settlers were the leaders with their entourage, who fled from Norway from the despotism of King Harold, nicknamed Fair-Haired. For several centuries, Iceland remained independent, it was ruled by influential leaders, who were called godar. They met annually in the summer at meetings of the Althing, which was the prototype of the first parliament. However, the Althing could not resolve the feuds between the leaders, and in 1262 Iceland submitted to the Norwegian king. It regained its independence only in 1944.

In 986, the Icelander Eric the Red led several hundred colonists to the southwestern coast of Greenland, which he had discovered several years earlier. They settled in the locality of Vesterbygden ("western settlement") at the edge of the ice cap on the banks of the Ameralik Fjord. Even for hardy Icelanders, the harsh conditions of southern Greenland proved to be a difficult test. Engaged in hunting, fishing and whaling, they lived in the area for approx. 400 years. However, around 1350 the settlements were completely abandoned. Historians have yet to figure out why the colonists, who had accumulated considerable experience of living in the North, suddenly left these places. Here, the cooling of the climate, the chronic shortage of grain, and the almost complete isolation of Greenland from Scandinavia after the plague epidemic in the middle of the 14th century could probably play a major role.

Vikings in North America. One of the most contentious issues in Scandinavian archeology and philology has to do with the study of the Greenlanders' attempts to establish a colony in North America. Two Icelandic family sagas, the Saga of Eric the Red and the Saga of the Greenlanders, detail a visit to the American coast c. 1000. According to these sources, North America was discovered by Byadni Herjolfsson, the son of the first settler of Greenland, but the main characters of the sagas are Leif Eriksson, the son of Erik the Red, and Thorfinn Thordarson, nicknamed Karlsabni. Leif Eriksson's base, apparently, was located in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bL "Ans-o-Meadow, located in the far north of the Newfoundland coast. Leif, along with his associates, carefully examined the more temperate region located much to the south, which he called Vinland. Karlsabni gathered a detachment to to establish a colony in Vinland in 1004 or 1005 (the location of this colony could not be established.) The newcomers met with resistance from the locals and were forced to return to Greenland three years later.

The brothers of Leif Eriksson Thorstein and Thorvald also took part in the exploration of the New World. It is known that Thorvald was killed by the natives. The Greenlanders made voyages to America for the forest after the end of the Viking Age.

End of the Viking Age. The violent activity of the Vikings ended at the end of the 11th century. A number of factors contributed to the cessation of campaigns and discoveries that lasted more than 300 years. In Scandinavia itself, monarchies were firmly established, and orderly orders were established among the nobility. feudal relations similar to those in the rest of Europe, the opportunities for uncontrolled raids diminished, and the incentives for aggressive activity abroad waned. Political and social stabilization in countries outside of Scandinavia enabled them to resist Viking raids. The Vikings, who had already settled in France, Russia, Italy and the British Isles, were gradually assimilated by the local population.

Materials of the encyclopedia "The world around us.

Literature:

Gurevich A. Ya. Campaigns of the Vikings. M., 1966.

Ingstad H. In the footsteps of Leif the Happy. L., 1969

Icelandic sagas. M., 1973

Firks I. Viking ships. L., 1982