The generic concept of lexical figurative means of speech is the concept of "tropes".

Trope (from the Greek tropos - turn, turn, turn of speech) is a generalized name for such turns (images) that are based on the use of a word (or combination of words) in a figurative sense and are used to enhance the figurativeness, expressiveness of speech.

Allegory(Greek allegoria - allegory) - a concrete image of an object or phenomenon of reality, replacing an abstract concept and thought. The green branch in the hands of a person has long been an allegorical image of the world, the image of a woman with a blindfold and scales in her hands - the goddess Themis - an allegory of justice, the image of a snake and a bowl - an allegory of medicine. For example, in fables, fairy tales, stupidity, stubbornness are embodied in the image of the Donkey, cowardice - in the image of the Hare.

Antonomasia(Greek antonomasia - renaming) - a trope consisting in the use of a proper name in the meaning of a common noun. For example, the surname of a Gogol character Khlestakov received a common noun - "liar", "braggart"; Hercules sometimes figuratively referred to as a strong man. During the period of classicism, ancient mythology and literature were an inexhaustible source of antonomasia:

Diana's chest, flora's cheeks

Adorable, dear friends!

(A. Pushkin)

Later, the names of famous public and political figures, scientists, writers began to receive nominal value:

We all look into Napoleons.

(A. Pushkin)

Hyperbola(Greek hyperbole - excess, exaggeration) - a trope, consisting in the transfer of value according to a quantitative attribute.

In the morning, the gardens quietly rustled ... In the bamboo thicket, a kitten meowed, lost in this vast jungle.

(K. Paustovsky)

Litotes(Greek litotes - simplicity, smallness, moderation) - a technique opposite to hyperbole, i.e. consisting in a quantitative underestimation of the signs of an object, phenomenon, action.

Such a small mouth that more than two pieces can not miss.

(N.V. Gogol)

Irony(Greek eirōneia - pretense, mockery) - the use of a word or statement in a sense opposite to the direct one. A hallmark of irony is a double meaning, where the true will not be directly stated, but the opposite, implied.

Nozdryov is in some respects a historical person. Not a single meeting he attended was without a story.

(N. Gogol)

Metaphor(Greek metaphora - transfer) - a type of trope in which individual words or expressions come close by the similarity of their meanings or by contrast. We can say that the metaphor is based on a comparison that is not formally indicated, i.e. hidden comparison.

Red rowan bonfire burns in the garden

(S. Yesenin)

personification- a kind of metaphor based on such an image of inanimate or abstract objects, in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings - the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel: Arbat ended his day(A. Rybakov).

Metonymy(Greek metonomadzo - to rename) - a type of path in which words come together according to the contiguity of more or less real concepts or connections they denote.

Transfers by adjacency are diverse, the main ones are as follows:

1) from the vessel, the container to the contents: ate a whole plate, drank two cups;

2) from the form or some external signs to the content: And you, blue uniforms (uniforms in the sense of "gendarmes" (M.Yu. Lermontov);

3) from a locality to its inhabitants or an event related to it: All village laughed at him;

4) from the organization, institution, event to its employees, participants: Factory went on strike.

5) from the emotional state to its cause: horror, fear in the meaning of "terrible event", the state of a person can be characterized through the external manifestation of this state: Lukerya, according to which I myself secretly sighed... (I. Turgenev);

Synecdoche(Greek synecdoche - correlation) - a special case of metonymy: the designation of the whole through its part. The most common types of synecdoche are:

1) a part of the phenomenon is called in the sense of the whole: All flags will visit us (A. Pushkin), i.e. ships under the flags of all countries;

2) the whole in the meaning of the part: Oh, how are you! Fight with a helmet? / Well, isn't it mean people? (A. Tvardovsky);

Epithet- this is a figurative definition of an object, expressed by an adjective.

Metaphor

Comparison is a figurative expression in which one object, a phenomenon is compared with another, which has some property.

3. Of the 25 students, almost all completed this task correctly, but there were difficulties (talkative as ...)

There were answers like this:

Sly as (fox, cat)

White like (snow, winter)

Cowardly as (hare, mouse)

Talkative like (magpie, parrot)

prickly like (hedgehog, tree)

4. Task "How do you understand words with a figurative meaning?"

All students completed the task, but not all gave the correct answer.

Table 4

Number of writers	Didn't answer	Successfully answered	Unsuccessfully answered	Wrong answer given

There were answers like this:

Correct:

"golden hands" - everything can be done well and beautifully

"golden stars" - very bright, light

"dead night" - very quiet

soft character - gentle, affectionate

fresh newspaper - it means just released

Unsuccessful:

Stone heart - a rude person

Golden hands are good

Wrong:

Silent night - loud

Golden stars - simple

soft character - hard

Stone heart - something unusual

Mistakes were made due to insufficient information about the metaphor and inability to

see similar signs in signs.

5. With a task. The majority of students managed to pick up adjectives for nouns.

beautiful magical good beautiful

clay soft kind new

silver loud funny interesting

crystal affectionate angry kind

glass angry interesting

neat

Consider what epithets the students have chosen for the word "vase".

The students picked up many adjectives for the noun “vase”. Among them, most reflected the physical properties of this object.

For example: large, glass, clay, etc.

But there were works where children picked up epithets for the word "vase" without knowing it themselves. For example: ruddy, shiny, beautiful, silver ...

Only 7 people used epithets, and 6 schoolchildren used the adjective “beautiful”.

Observations in reading lessons showed that, while analyzing the works of Russian poets, the teacher works on the semantics of figurative means found in poems, without using the terms themselves.

As the ascertaining experiment shows, children in the primary grades do not know the theory of figurative means, they do not understand what the essence of metaphor, comparison, epithets is, how objects and phenomena should be compared, they cannot correctly construct a comparison, explain words with a figurative meaning. Therefore, figurative means are not used in the speech of children.

This is due to the fact that in the methodology of the finished system of work on figurative means in primary grades, which would be included in the main program material and would include information about figurative means, as well as speech exercises to consolidate the acquired knowledge.

Work on this topic is not planned by the program for educational institutions, therefore, there is no theoretical information about figurative means in textbooks, and in the lessons of the Russian language and reading, the teacher does not pay much attention to the study of epithet, metaphor, comparison. Therefore, the speech of primary school students is very poor in terms of the use of figurative means. All this allows us to conclude that it is necessary to develop a special methodological system for working on figurative means. It should include: a training program, a system of exercises and didactic material.

Chapter 2 Experienced learning.

1. Characteristics of the learning process.

The main goal of teaching the Russian language in primary school is the development of oral and written speech of students in unity with the development of their thinking. The quality of further education of schoolchildren depends on the level of development of speech and thinking.

As practice shows, the school pays little attention to the development of students' speech. There are many speech errors in children's creative works. The works are inexpressive, devoid of figurative means.

Figurative and expressive means in the speech of children are almost never found. This is due to the lack of speech orientation in the study of the Russian language.

Russian language textbooks and reading books do not contain sufficient information about speech.

The ascertaining experiment showed that the speech development of children in terms of the use of figurative means is at a low level.

The study of figurative means is not provided for by the program, therefore there is almost no information about figurative means in school textbooks and the teacher does not devote time in class to studying figurative means.

When studying figurative means, in particular the epithet, comparison, children develop associative thinking, the ability to distinguish between common and different in objects and phenomena, the ability to distinguish between common and different in objects and phenomena, the ability to explain words with a figurative meaning, at the logical level, the ability to see the role of figurative means in texts of various styles of speech and their use in their own statements. Our work is aimed at teaching students to use comparisons, metaphors, epithets in their speech as figurative means. This requires a specially designed training system, which would include:

1) training program; 2) a system of speech exercises; 3) Didactic material.

We have developed such a system of education for elementary grades.

a) Curriculum for Grade 2.

Language	Theoretical information	Types of exercises
1. Introduction Image means. Russian language: Language and speech. Rhetoric: Learning to listen. Reading: A. Tvordovsky	Speech. Correct, appropriate, rich speech. Image means. Epithet. Metaphor. Comparison. Image. "Between thinning tops"	Analysis of texts, find figurative means, determine their function in the text.
2. The concept of comparison as a figurative means. Russian language:	Comparison is a figurative tool. Repetition of what has been learned	1. Find a comparison 2. Pick up another comparison. 3. Match to this phenomenon comparison subject. 4. Explain function comparisons.
3. Structure of comparison (subject, image, common feature) Russian language Reading: A. S. Pushkin	Comparison Structure "The Tale of Tsar Saltan…"	1. Select in this comparison 3 element: subject, image, general 2. Find in the text unsuccessful comparison and replace it.
4. Comparisons expressed by a noun. Helper words: as, as if, as if, exactly. Russian language Reading: A. S. Pushkin	Comparisons expressed by nouns. The help of words is like, as if, as if, exactly. "The Tale of Tsar Saltan …"	1. Text analysis. 2. Select from text comparisons expressed by nouns using words exactly. 3. Replace this comparison with a comparison expressed by a noun using the words as, as if, as if.
Language	Theoretical information	Types of exercises
5. Comparison. Comparison structure. Russian language: Rhetoric.	Comparison, comparison structure.	1. Text analysis 2. Find a comparison 3. Replace with another comparison 4. Include a comparison in the proposal.
6. Adjective. Russian language: Role Rhetoric	adjectives in our speech.	1. Select an epithet. 2. Pick up epithets for objects.
7. Epithet. Russian language:	Epithets expressed by adjectives. Adjective	1. Selection of synonyms for epithets. 2. Observation of the role of epithets.
8. Adjective. Comparison of objects based on various common features. Russian language: Name Reading: F.I. Tyutchev	Comparison. adjective "Eat in the original autumn"	1. Highlight the general features of an object, phenomenon, action. 2. With the help of comparison, transform the text, giving it a different emotional-single characteristic. 3. Choose another comparison.
9. Riddle, as a genre of UNT. Comparison at the heart of the puzzle. Reading: UNT Rhetoric: Riddles-Descriptions	Comparison, riddle	1. Find a comparison in the riddle. 2. Come up with a riddle, including a comparison. 3. Selection to the subjects of comparisons.
Language	Theoretical information	Types of exercises
10. Epithets. Rhetoric	Epithets expressed by the participle.	1. Conversations on issues 2. Drawing up a story based on plot pictures.
11. Verb. Comparison expressed with the help of words - resembles, reminds. Russian language: Verb Rhetoric	Comparisons expressed with the help of words - like, reminds.	1. Drawing up a story from the picture (orally). 2. Find comparisons, replace them with a comparison expressed with the help of words - it looks like, reminds.
12. The concept of the direct and figurative meaning of the word. Reading: D. Kedrin "Pictures of the Forest"	Direct meaning of the word, figurative meaning of the word. Metaphor.	1. Find a metaphor in the text, explain it. 2. Find an expression where the word is used in a figurative sense. 3. Make a sentence with this metaphor.
13. The function of figurative means in speech (on the example of texts of different styles of speech) Rhetoric: Text	Scientific style, artistic style, journalistic style of speech.	1. Text analysis, finding figurative means in the text. 2. Include a description in the text using figurative means. 3. Replace figurative means with others. 4. Define the function of figurative means.
Language	Theoretical information	Types of exercises
14. Metaphor in the text. Rhetoric: Listen and highlight the incomprehensible. Reading: UNT Epics.	Direct figurative meaning of the word, metaphor.	1. Find a metaphor in the text. 2. Explain the figurative meaning of the word. 3. Use a metaphor in your own statements.
15. Riddle as a genre of student essay. Rhetoric: Riddles-descriptions.	Mystery. Image, comparison, metaphor.	Construction of a riddle.
16. Repetition of what has been learned about figurative means. Russian language Rhetoric	Metaphor, epithet, comparison, personification	1. Conversation on questions. 2. Writing a description on the topic "What does a tree look like in winter." "I'm invisible." 3. Description of the subject. 4. Compilation of sentences with phrases of the type: adjective (epithet) + noun.
17. Repetition of what has been learned. Russian language Rhetoric	Metaphor, epithet, comparison.	1. Find epithets, comparison, metaphor in the text. Explain what they are used for. 2. Text retelling. 3. Distribution of offers.
Language	Theoretical information	Types of exercises
18. Repetition of what has been learned. Russian language Rhetoric	Image, personification, metaphor, comparison, epithet.	1. Find figurative means in the text to help create an image. 2.Replace impersonation. 3. Make a sentence using personification.

This training program includes theoretical information about figurative means, their functions in speech, which are fixed by a certain system of speech exercises.

Familiarization of children with figurative means can be carried out in the lessons of rhetoric and reading.

When studying the topic "Imaginative means", children should familiarize themselves and learn the following concepts:

Speech is the activity of a person using language for the purpose of communication.

Correctness of speech- this is the correspondence of speech to the current language norms.

Richness of speech- this is the maximum possible saturation of speech with various non-repeating means of the language.

Mentality of speech- this is the correspondence of words and phrases to the stylistic coloring of speech.

Figurative speech- these are the features of its structure with the help of which a specific idea of ​​the subject of speech is created.

epithets- these are words that name the characteristic features of objects, phenomena, answer the questions what? (th, - th, - th).

Metaphor– transfer of meanings based on similarity, comparison of objects and phenomena.

Comparison- this is a figurative expression in which one object (phenomenon) is compared to another, which has some identical property.

The figurative meaning of the word- this is the use of a word denoting some object (phenomenon) for the figurative name of another object similar to the first in something.

Speech style– selection of language means depending on the conditions and goals of communication.

The program is designed in such a way that learning goes from analyzing a sample to creating your own statements.

In grade II, work with figurative means is conducted as an integrated course, i.e. the studied material is included as an additional one in the main general educational program in reading, Russian language and rhetoric. The concept of comparison, epithet, metaphor as a figurative means is given. Children get acquainted with the structure of comparison, learn to distinguish 3 elements in comparison: what is compared is an object, what is compared with is an image; on the basis of which - a sign of comparison.

Then we introduce children to epithets, look for them in the text, find out their function in the text, learn to use them in our own statements. Then we learn to correctly identify common features for the formation of comparisons.

In subsequent lessons, we work with the direct and figurative meaning of the word, since in comparison one part appears in the direct, and the other in the figurative meaning.

It is proposed to work on a riddle based on the principle of comparison.

At the lessons of reading and the Russian language, we enrich the vocabulary of children with epithets, and at the lessons of rhetoric we consider the function of comparisons in various styles of speech (scientific, artistic, journalistic).

Work continues on the riddle, now the children themselves design riddles.

By the end of grade II, children should know the concept of comparison, epithet, metaphor, as a figurative means, the structure of comparison and the means of its expression, see the figurative meaning of the word, determine the functions of figurative means in various styles of speech; be able to highlight comparison, metaphor, epithet in the text; compose riddles, use figurative means in their own statements.

b) System of exercises

To implement the program, a system of exercises is needed that will allow you to consolidate theoretical knowledge and develop the ability to use figurative means in children's speech.

This system of exercises is built on the principle of a gradual transition from analyzing a sample to creating your own statements.

The system is based on the types of speech exercises existing in the methodology:

1. analytical;

2. analytical and speech;

3. speech exercises on the material of the source text (exposition);

4. creation of own statements (essay).

For each type of speech exercises, appropriate tasks are selected, aimed at developing students' knowledge, skills and abilities about figurative means.

I. Analytical exercises:

(analysis of finished material)

On the material of the finished text, children learn to identify figurative means, analyze them, get acquainted with various means of expressing comparison, determine the function of figurative means depending on the task of speech.

1. Find epithets in the text. Determine what purpose they are used for.

2. Find comparisons in the text. With whom (what) does the author compare this or that

object, phenomena and why.

3. Select 3 elements in this comparison: object, image, sign

similarities.

4. Observation of the role of figurative means in the text. Compare two texts -

artistic and scientific styles; think what function

perform figurative means in these texts.

5. Select comparisons from the text, expressed, for example, a noun-

nym with the help of words: as, as if, as if, exactly.

6. Choose epithets for this text or phenomenon.

7. Select comparisons from fiction for this text,

expressed in various ways.

8. Explain the figurative meaning of the word. Make an offer with him.

9. Find an expression where the word is used in its direct meaning.

II. Analytical speech exercises.

This type of exercise involves the transformation of a given language material. Children learn not only to find figurative means in the text, but also to create them themselves, include them in the finished text, replace one comparison, epithet with another.

These exercises prepare children to create their own statements.

1. Include comparison, epithet, metaphor in the text, making it more general

2. Include a description of an object or phenomenon in the text using an image

funds.

3. Choose a new comparison for this subject or phenomenon.

4. Using figurative tools, transform the text by giving it a different

emotional evaluation.

5. Find an unsuccessful comparison (epithet, metaphor) in the text and replace

its different, correct.

6. Replace comparisons in the text, expressed, for example, with

union HOW, comparisons with words - similar, similar.

7. Complete the sentence with a comparison.

III. Speech exercises on the material of the source text (exposition).

Using a ready-made text as a model, children learn to use figurative means in their own speech, to compose logically correct constructions of sentences with figurative means.

1. Oral retelling of the text (detailed).

2. Selective presentation (Choose from the text a description of an object, phenomenon,

appearance, scenery, etc.)

3. Insert a description of an object, phenomenon into this text using

figurative means.

4. Supplement the original text with comparisons, epithets, metaphor,

expressing your assessment of the subject (phenomenon).

5. Written retelling of a descriptive text.

IV. Creation of own statement of comparisons, metaphors.

This type of exercise is aimed at developing and shaping students

The ability to create their own statements, using figurative means, depending on the task of speech.

1. Composing riddles using comparisons, metaphors.

2. Drawing up a story based on a picture, observation.

3. Composition using figurative means in accordance with the task

4. A note in the school newspaper.

5. Essay - a comparative description.

6. Letter to a friend.

This system of exercises requires special didactic material.

c) Didactic material.

Texts from works of fiction, texts from textbooks of natural history, natural science, geography, from periodicals for children and children's encyclopedias are used as didactic material when working on figurative means.

The texts are selected taking into account the age characteristics of children, from knowledge and interests.

You can also use separate sentences with comparisons, metaphor, but the basis of the didactic material should be texts. Since only on the example of the text we can show all the qualities of speech: correctness, richness, imagery and expressiveness.

The didactic material includes texts of various styles, which makes it possible to show the full scope of the use of figurative means.

In various styles of speech, figurative means play a certain role and the teacher must show this to the children with examples.

In the scientific style of speech, figurative means are used to more accurately describe an object, phenomenon, that is, they perform an explanatory function.

In the journalistic style, figurative means are used for a more emotional perception of information, in order to influence the feelings of the reader and create a certain assessment, expressing the feelings and mood of the speaker.

The words "imagery", "figurative" are used in stylistics in different meanings. Imagery in the broad sense of the word - as liveliness, visibility, colorfulness of the image - is an integral feature of any kind of art, a form of understanding reality from the standpoint of some aesthetic ideal, imagery of speech is its particular manifestation.

Stylistics considers the figurativeness of speech as a special stylistic feature that receives the most complete expression in the language of fiction. Once in an artistic context, the word is included in the complex figurative system of the work and invariably performs an aesthetic function. “The word in a work of art,” wrote Acad. V.V. Vinogradov, - coinciding in its external form with the word of the corresponding national language system and relying on its meaning, is addressed not only to the national language and the experience of the people's cognitive activity reflected in it, but also to the world of reality that is creatively created or recreated in a work of art. (...) Therefore, it [the word] is two-dimensional in its semantic orientation and, therefore, figurative in this sense.

A narrower understanding of the figurativeness of speech is based on the use of words in a figurative sense, with changed semantics. At the same time, words that acquire a figurative meaning in an artistic context lose their nominative function to some extent and acquire a bright expressive coloring. The study of the figurative meaning of the word in this sense is aimed at the study of lexical devices that give aesthetic and artistic meaning to speech.

2.2.2. Trope definition

Words used in a figurative sense in order to create an image are called tropes (gr. tropos - turn, turn, image). Paths give clarity to the image of certain objects, phenomena [Thundercloud smoked with ashy smoke and quickly sank to the ground. She was all the same slate color. But each flash of lightning opened in her yellowish ominous whirlwinds, blue caves and winding cracks, illuminated from within by a pink muddy fire. piercing brilliance lightning changed in the depths of the clouds blazing copper flame. And closer to the ground, between the cloud and the forest, already stripes fell pouring rain. (Paust.)]. Acting as tropes, ordinary words can acquire great expressive power. However, it would be wrong to assume that the tropes are used by writers only when describing unusual, exceptional objects and phenomena. Trails can be a powerful medium for creating realistic scenes: Our very old car rolls slowly, snoring and sneezing, raising clouds of dust. (M.G.) Tropes are also found in descriptions of non-aesthetic phenomena that cause a negative assessment of the reader (Ivan Ivanovich's head looks like a radish with its tail down; head of Ivan Nikiforovich - on a radish tail up. - G.). Humorists and satirists love tropes that "lower" the subject of description, giving the speech a comical sound [Success has already licked this man with his tongue (Ch.); Ptiburdukov brought his brother, a military doctor. Ptiburdukov the second put his ear to Lokhankin’s body for a long time and listened to the work of his organs with the attentiveness how does a cat listen to the movement of a mouse in a sugar bowl. (I. and P.)]. For the stylistic assessment of the tropes, it is not their conditional "beautifulness" that is important, but the organicity in the text, the conditionality of their content of the work, the aesthetic tasks of the author.

Speech equipped with tropes is called metalogical (from gr. meta - through, after, lógos - word); it is opposed to autological speech (from Gr. autos - I, myself and lógos - word), in which there are no paths.

Sometimes it is incorrectly believed that only metalogical speech can be highly artistic, while the absence of tropes in the style seems to indicate the insufficient skill of the writer. This judgment is fundamentally wrong. Autological speech can also be highly artistic. Even in poetry, one can find many examples of the aesthetically perfect use of words in their direct lexical meanings (suffice it to recall the penetrating poems of the late S. Yesenin: You sing me that song that our old mother used to sing to us ...; You don’t love me, you don’t feel sorry for me ... Maybe it’s too late, maybe too early ...; Goodbye, my friend, goodbye ...). Preference for tropes or rejection of them does not yet give grounds to talk about the degree of skill of the author - it all depends on how the tropes are used, how justified it is to refer to them in context, whether the writer creates convincing, reliable or weak, false images.

2.2.3. Limits of the use of tropes in speech

When studying tropes, two contrasting forms of expression are usually contrasted - artistic speech and non-artistic speech. However, the use of tropes is possible not only in works of art. Functional styles borrow figurativeness from artistic speech, but at the same time qualitatively transform it, adapting it to their needs. “If, for example, in fiction, in poetry, tropes serve to create an image, then in colloquial speech they are subordinated to the goals of direct expression of the speaker’s emotions.” We must not forget that the appeal to the tropes is always due to the features of the individual style of the author.

Of the functional styles, the journalistic one is the most open to tropes, in which the word often performs an aesthetic function, as in artistic speech. However, the goal of metaphorization, for example, in the language of newspapers, "is not in an individual-figurative vision of the world and poetic self-expression", but in bringing objective and comprehensive information to the mass reader in the specific conditions of the newspaper process.

Elements of figurative speech can also be used in a scientific style, although its most important distinguishing feature is a direct, unambiguous expression of thought by linguistic means, which at the lexical level means the fundamental "non-metaphoric" word-concept. And yet “this does not mean that in scientific speech it is impossible to meet or use a lexical metaphor. But metaphors are very rare and, moreover, mainly in the "journalistic" or "popularizing" parts of a scientific work; they are not obligatory, have a random, non-systemic character, have a narrow contextual meaning and are felt as different styles, or at least as not proper styles. In the scientific style, there is a specifically rational approach to the use of elements of figurative speech, and under these conditions, the paths cease to bear the imprint of individual use and enter into stable combinations of scientific prose. At the same time, researchers note the gradual formalization of all elements of the language of science, including emotional and evaluative moments, which leads to the stylistic neutralization of tropes that lose their expression in scientific prose. This applies primarily to terms that often come into the language of science as metaphors (the brain of a car, a memory device, the tail of an aircraft, a gear unit, the lens of an eye, etc.). As this or that word is approved as a term, with the consolidation of its new, scientific and conceptual meaning, the metaphor is neutralized; the complete disappearance of its figurative meaning completes the process of terminology. Appeal to paths in a scientific style also depends on the content of the work. So, undoubtedly, the attitude to lexical figurative means is different for authors working in the field of technical, natural and human sciences: in the works of philologists, expressive elements of speech, including tropes, are more often used. The genre differences of scientific works are also important, and the form of presentation - written or oral. The most favorable conditions for metalogical speech are created in scientific works addressed to the general reader. In order to popularize scientific ideas, the author turns to linguistic means that serve to achieve simplicity and clarity of presentation; in this case, lexical figurative means become especially important.

In the official business style, presented in its “pure form”, reference to paths is excluded, here the words are used in their direct meanings. The requirement of brevity, accuracy and specificity in the description of events in official business documents does not allow for metaphor. Objectivity of presentation, lack of emotionality are the most important distinguishing features of the official business style. However, a careful study of the various genres of this style in various periods of its development convinces us that the use of expressive linguistic means, including tropes, is not alien to it.

The official business style has changed qualitatively throughout its historical development, and under the influence of certain social events, the expressive coloring of the language means used in it has also varied. “The activation of some genres of a national scale (decrees, declarations) during periods of particularly significant social transformations or upheavals ... was accompanied by the formation of a kind of synthetic type of business speech, combining the official-administrative and artistic-journalistic stream and having a solemn, pathetic character.”

Over time, the language of the official business style was updated, the evaluative vocabulary and pathos that were characteristic of the style of the first state documents of the Soviet government and decrees of the war years became a thing of the past, giving way to a neutral, from the point of view of expression, business style. Clarity, concreteness of presentation, the absence of emotional and evaluative elements are the defining features of the style of modern business documents. And yet, the appeal to the paths in them is sometimes justified even today. Modern official business style does not exclude a variety of genres. Some of them are influenced by journalistic speech, which leads to the use of emotionally expressive vocabulary, phraseology, and, finally, various tropes. For example, in diplomatic documents one can often find metaphors (... A demand is put forward to quickly take measures to put an end to the bloodshed, put out the hotbed of war in this region of Asia; No government has the right add fuel to the fire. It is necessary to stop the dangerous development of events...), metonymy (White House - in the meaning of the US government; Kiev - in the meaning of Ukraine; in diplomatic documents of foreign states, Moscow, the Kremlin - to designate the Russian state) and other paths. This convinces us that lexical figurative means can be a reflection of the publicity of the content of certain types of official business documents, in which case the use of tropes is not only not contraindicated, but is also quite stylistically justified. Thus, the use of tropes is practically possible in all functional styles, if the appeal to expressive language means is motivated by the content of the utterance. However, the nature of lexical figurative means in various conditions of their use is not the same: certain elements of figurativeness, falling from artistic speech into functional styles, perceive their features without violating the general laws of a particular style.

2.2.4. Characteristics of the main trails

The classification of tropes, assimilated by lexical stylistics, goes back to ancient rhetoric, as does the corresponding terminology.

2.2.4.1. Metaphor

The traditional definition of metaphor is associated with the etymological explanation of the term itself: a metaphor (gr. metaphorá - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their similarity. However, linguists define metaphor as a semantic phenomenon; caused by the imposition of an additional meaning on the direct meaning of the word, which for this word becomes the main one in the context of a work of art. At the same time, the direct meaning of the word serves only as a basis for the author's associations.

Among other tropes, metaphor occupies the main place, it allows you to create a capacious image based on bright, often unexpected, bold associations. For example: The east is burning with a new dawn (P.) - the word is burning, acting as a metaphor, drawing bright colors of the sky illuminated by the rays of the rising sun. This metaphor is based on the similarity of the color of dawn and fire, in the context it acquires a special symbolic meaning: before the battle of Poltava, the red dawn is perceived as an omen of a bloody battle.

Metaphorization can be based on the similarity of the most diverse features of objects: color, shape, volume, purpose, position in space and time, etc. Even Aristotle noted that to compose good metaphors means to notice similarities. The observant eye of the artist finds similarities in almost everything. The unexpectedness of such comparisons gives the metaphor a special expressiveness [The sun is lowering its rays into a plumb line (Fet); And the golden autumn ... cries on the sand with leaves (Es.); Turning gray, ice is peeling (Past.); The night rushed about outside the windows, now bursting open with a swift white fire, now shrinking into impenetrable darkness. (Paust.)].

The metaphorical transfer of the name also occurs when the word develops a derived meaning on the basis of the main, nominative meaning (cf.: back of a chair, door handle). However, in these so-called linguistic metaphors, there is no image, which is how they fundamentally differ from poetic ones.

In stylistics, it is necessary to distinguish between individual authorial metaphors that are created by word artists for a specific speech situation (I want to listen to a sensual blizzard under a blue gaze. - Es.), and anonymous metaphors that have become the property of the language (a spark of feeling, a storm of passions, etc.). Individually-author's metaphors are very expressive, the possibilities of creating them are inexhaustible, as are the possibilities of revealing the similarity of various features of compared objects, actions, states. Even ancient authors recognized that "there is no path more brilliant, telling speech more vivid images than metaphor."

Metaphors that have become widespread in the language have faded, faded, their figurative meaning is sometimes not noticed in speech. It is not always possible to draw a clear line between such a metaphor and the figurative meaning of a word. The use of one metaphor very often entails the stringing of new metaphors, related in meaning to the first; as a result of this, a detailed metaphor arises (The golden grove dissuaded it with a birch, cheerful language ... - Es.). Expanded metaphors attract word artists as a particularly vivid stylistic device of figurative speech.

2.2.4.2. personification

Personification is the endowment of inanimate objects with the signs and properties of a person [... A star speaks with a star (L.); The earth sleeps in the radiance of blue ... (L.)]. Personification is one of the most common tropes. The tradition of its use goes back to oral folk poetry (Don't make noise, mother, green oak tree, don't bother me, good fellow, to think...). Many poets used this trope in works close to folklore (What are you making noise, swaying, thin mountain ash, bending your head low to the tyn? - Sur.). Artists of the word made personification the most important means of figurative speech. Personifications are used in describing natural phenomena, things surrounding a person, which are endowed with the ability to feel, think, act [Park swayed and groaned (Paust.); Spring wandered along with a light through wind along the corridors, breathed its girlish breath in the face (Paust.); The thunder muttered awake ... (Paust.)].

Personification is one of those tropes that are widely used not only in artistic speech, but also in a scientific style (air heals, X-ray showed), publicistic (Our guns started talking. The usual duel of batteries began. - Quiet.). The impersonation technique is used in the headlines of newspaper articles (“The ice track is waiting”, “The sun lights the beacons”, “The match brought records”).

A special type of personification is personification (from Latin persona - face, facere - to do) - the complete assimilation of an inanimate object to a person. In this case, objects are not endowed with private signs of a person (as in personification), but acquire a real human appearance:

Belovezhskaya Pushcha...

Contrary to the expectations of the collapse, which we see everywhere, normal economic circulation. Difficulties - as everywhere, but fat accumulated here(...). ...And Pushcha is already chilling from light night frosts, from long fogs. Pushcha is calm and indifferent to human passions. Her oak forests have seen a lot of things. But they are silent. And, dying, they will not tell anything.

2.2.4.3. Allegory

Allegory (gr. allēgoria - allegory, from allos - different, agoreúo - I say) is the expression of abstract concepts in specific artistic images. For example, in fables, fairy tales, stupidity, stubbornness are embodied in the image of the Donkey, cowardice - in the image of the Hare, cunning - in the image of the Fox. Allegorical meaning can receive allegorical expressions: autumn has come can mean “old age has come”, the roads are covered with snow - “there is no return to the past”, let there always be sun - “let happiness be unchanged”, etc. Such allegories are of a general language character.

Individually-author's allegories often take on the character of an extended metaphor, which receives a special compositional solution. For example, A.S. Pushkin's allegory underlies the figurative system of the poems "Arion", "Anchar", "Prophet", "The Nightingale and the Rose"; at M.Yu. Lermontov - poems "Dagger", "Sail", "Cliff", etc.

2.2.4.4. Metonymy

Metonymy (from Gr. metonomadzo - to rename) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their contiguity. For example: Porcelain and bronze on the table (P.) - the names of materials are used to refer to items made from them. Metonymy is often considered as a kind of metaphor, but there are significant differences between them: for the metaphorical transfer of a name, the objects being compared must necessarily be similar, but with metonymy there is no such similarity; a metaphor can easily be converted into a comparison; metonymy does not allow this.

In metonymy, the objects united by the name are connected in some way. A variety of associations by adjacency are possible: the name of the place is used to refer to the people who are there (violent Rome rejoices ... - L.); the name of the vessel is used in the meaning of the contents (... The hiss of foamy glasses ... - P.); the name of the author replaces the title of his works (Funeral Chopin rumbled at sunset. - St.), etc.

More complex cases of metonymy include those when the action and its result receive the same name (Fables of bygone times, during golden leisure hours, under the whisper of old talkative, I wrote with a faithful hand, accept my playful work ... - P.); the name of the instrument of action is transferred to the action itself (... He doomed their villages and fields for a violent raid to swords and fires ... - P.); the state of a person is characterized through the external manifestation of this state (... Lukerya, for which I myself secretly sighed ... - T.).

Of interest is the metonymy of definitions. For example, in Pushkin, the combination of overstarched impudent characterizes one of the social guests. Of course, in terms of meaning, the definition of starched can only be attributed to nouns that name some details of the fashionable dandy's toilet, but in figurative speech such a transfer of the name is possible. In fiction, there are examples of such metonymy (Then a short old man in astonished glasses came. - Bun.). The sources of metonymic convergence of concepts are inexhaustible, which gives great scope for the creative use of this trope [There are no taverns. In a cold hut, a pompous, but seemingly hungry price list hangs ... (P.); ... Only once the hussar, with a careless hand leaning on scarlet velvet, glided over her with a gentle smile ... (Bl.); And on the lime of the bell towers - the hand is involuntarily baptized (Es.); And the accordion wanders somewhere, only it is barely heard ... (Tvard.)].

2.2.4.5. Antonomasia

A special type of metonymy is antonomasia (gr. antonomasia - renaming) - a trope consisting in the use of a proper name in the meaning of a common noun. For example, the surname of Gogol's character Khlestakov received a nominal meaning - "a liar, a braggart." Hercules is sometimes figuratively called a strong man. The use of the words donquixote, don juan, womanizer, etc. in a figurative sense has become fixed in the language. Often figurative meaning is given to the names of other literary heroes (Molchalin, Skalozub, Manilov, Plyushkin, Othello, Quasimodo). Such names of characters can be used as an expressive means of figurative speech (... And in the West, many empty books and articles are written ... They are written partly by the French Manilovs, partly by the French Chichikovs. - Chern.). The names of well-known public and political figures, scientists, writers [We all look at Napoleons ... (P.)] also receive nominal value.

An inexhaustible source of antonomasia is ancient mythology and literature. Ancient images were especially widely used in Russian poetry of the period of classicism and the first half of the 19th century. (Diana's breasts, Flora's cheeks are charming, dear friends! However, Terpsichore's leg is more charming than something for me. - P.). But in the second half of the XIX century. antonomasia, which goes back to ancient mythology and poetry, is used much less often and is already perceived as a tribute to the outgoing poetic tradition. In the modern literary language, the figurative use of the names of the heroes of ancient mythology is possible only in humorous, satirical works [“The Priest of Melpomene on state grubs” (the title of the feuilleton); "Hermes ordered to live long" (an article about the termination of the activities of the financial company "Hermes"); "Hephaestus on earnings" (about the commercial affairs of the defense industry)].

However, antonomasia still retains its expressive power, based on the rethinking of the names of historical figures, writers and literary heroes. Publicists use this trope most often in headlines.

2.2.4.6. Synecdoche

A variety of metonymy is synecdochē (gr. synecdochē - connotation, correlation). This trope consists in replacing the plural with the singular, in using the name of the part instead of the whole, the particular instead of the general, and vice versa. For example:

To the east, through smoke and soot,

From one prison deaf

Europe goes home.

Fluff of feather beds over her like a blizzard.

And on Russian soldier

French brother, British brother,

Pole brother and everything

With friendship as if to blame,

But they look with their hearts.

(A.T. Tvardovsky)

Here the generalized name Europe is used instead of the names of European peoples; the singular of the nouns soldier, brother of the Frenchman and others is plural. Synecdoche enhances the expression of speech and gives it a deep generalizing meaning.

There are several types of synecdoche. The most commonly used synecdoche is the use of the singular form instead of the plural, which gives the nouns a collective meaning. (It is inaudible from the birches, a yellow leaf flies weightlessly). The name of a part of an object can replace the word denoting the entire object (Poet, pensive dreamer, killed by a friendly hand! - P.). The name of an abstract concept is often used instead of the name of a concrete one (Free thought and scientific audacity have broken their wings against the ignorance and rigidity of the political system). Synecdoche is used in various functional styles. For example, in colloquial speech, synecdoches are common, which have acquired a general language character (an intelligent person is called a head, a talented master is called golden hands, etc.). In book styles, especially in journalistic, synecdoches are often found: 302 million dollars "drowned" in the Pacific Ocean, when the red-hot fragments of the Mars-96 interplanetary station plunged into the water at great speed, fortunately without hitting Australia, which was expecting unpleasant surprises. It's a shame: our old people are starving, not receiving a pension for 2-3 months, and then such money was sent to the bottom of the sea ... (V. Golovanov. What do "space ambitions" cost // AiF. - 1996.)

2.2.4.7. Epithet

An epithet (from Gr. epitheton - application) is a figurative definition of an object or action (The moon makes its way through the wavy fogs, it pours a sad light on sad glades. - P.).

To the paths, in the strict sense of this term, belong only epithets, the function of which is performed by words used in a figurative sense (golden autumn, tear-stained windows), and unlike exact epithets, expressed by words used in a direct sense (red viburnum, hot afternoon). Epithets are most often colorful definitions expressed by adjectives (The watchman struck the clock on the bell tower - twelve strikes. And although it was far from the shore, this ringing flew to us, passed the steamer and went along the water surface into the transparent dusk where the moon hung. I don’t know: how to call the languid light of the white night? Mysterious? Or magical? These nights always seem to me excessive generosity of nature - how much pale air and transparent shine foil and silver. - Paust.).

Adjectives-epithets, when substantiated, can play the role of a subject, object, address (Darling, kind, old, tender! You don’t make friends with sad thoughts. - Es.).

Most epithets characterize objects, but there are also those that figuratively describe actions. At the same time, if the action is indicated by a verbal noun, the epithet is expressed by an adjective (heavy movement of clouds, sleepy noise of rain), but if the action is called a verb, then the epithet can be an adverb that acts as a circumstance (The leaves were stretched tensely in the wind. The earth groaned tightly. - Paust.). As epithets, nouns can also be used, playing the role of applications, predicates, giving a figurative description of the subject (The poet is an echo of the world, and not just the nanny of his soul. - M. G.).

The epithet as a kind of trope was studied by many prominent philologists: F.I. Buslaev, A.N. Veselovsky, A.A. Potebnya, V.M. Zhirmunsky, B.V. Tomashevsky and others, - however, science still does not have a developed theory of the epithet, there is no single terminology necessary to characterize various types of epithets. The concept of "epithet" is sometimes unjustifiably expanded, referring to it any adjective that acts as a definition. However, epithets should not include adjectives that indicate the distinctive features of objects and do not give their figurative characteristics. For example, in the sentence Oak leaf broke away from the darling branch (L.) - adjectives perform only a semantic function. Unlike epithets, such definitions are sometimes called logical.

The creation of figurative epithets is usually associated with the use of words in a figurative sense (cf .: lemon juice - lemon light of the moon; a gray-haired old man - a gray-haired fog; he lazily brushed off mosquitoes - the river lazily rolls waves). Epithets expressed by words that act in figurative meanings are called metaphorical (A golden cloud spent the night on the chest of a giant cliff, in the morning it rushed off on its way early, playing merrily on the azure ... - L.). The basis of the epithet may be a metonymic transfer of the name, such epithets are called metonymic (... The white smell of daffodils, happy, white spring smell ... - L. T.). Metaphorical and metonymic epithets refer to the tropes [cardboard love (G.); moth beauty, tearful morning (Ch.); blue mood (Cupr.); wet-lipped wind (Shol.); transparent silence (Paust.)].

Definitions expressed in words that retain their direct meaning in the text cannot be attributed to tropes, but this does not mean that they cannot perform an aesthetic function, be a strong pictorial tool. For example: On blue, slashed the sun plays on the ice; dirty snow melts on the streets (P.) - these exact epithets are not inferior in expressiveness to any metaphorical ones that the artist could use to describe early spring. Color epithets (pink clouds, pale clear azure, pale golden spots of light - T.) often give speech a vivid depiction. More A.N. Veselovsky noted the folk symbolism of colors, when the physiological perception of color and light is associated with mental sensations (green - fresh, clear, young; white - desired, bright, joyful).

Epithets are studied from different positions, while offering their various classifications. From a genetic point of view, epithets can be divided into general language (deathly silence, lightning-fast decision), and individual author's (cold horror, pampered negligence, chilling politeness - T.), folk poetic (beautiful girl, good fellow). The latter are also called permanent, since phrases with them have acquired a stable character in the language.

The stylistic approach to the study of epithets makes it possible to distinguish three groups in their composition:

Amplifying epithets that indicate a feature contained in the word being defined (mirror surface, cold indifference, slate darkness); amplifying epithets also include tautological ones (woe is bitter).

Clarifying epithets that name the distinguishing features of an object (size, shape, color, etc.) (The Russian people created a huge oral literature: wise proverbs and cunning riddles, funny and sad ritual songs, solemn epics. - A. T.). The expressive power of such epithets is often reinforced by other tropes, especially comparisons [With wondrous ligature, he (people. - I. G.) wove an invisible web of the Russian language: bright as a rainbow, following a spring downpour, well-aimed as arrows, sincere, like a song over a cradle, melodious and rich (A. T.)]. It is not always possible to draw a clear line between amplifying and clarifying epithets.

Contrasting epithets that form combinations of words opposite in meaning with the nouns being defined are oxymorons [a living corpse (L.T.); joyful sadness (King); hateful love (Shol.)].

Other groupings of epithets are also possible. This indicates that the concept of "epithet" combines very diverse lexical means of figurativeness.

2.2.4.8. Comparison

Comparison adjoins lexical figurative means. Comparison is the comparison of one object with another in order to describe the first one artistically [Under blue skies magnificent carpets, shining in the sun, the snow lies (P.); The ice is not strong on the icy river, as if it lies like melting sugar (N.)]. Comparison is one of the most common means of representation in metalogical speech. Comparisons are widely used by poets (for example: At dawn, the shaggy fog, confusing smoke and haze, will slide somewhere along the banks, like river on top of the river. - Tward.); scientists resort to them in order to popularly explain a phenomenon (for example, in a lecture on physics: If we imagine that we miraculously force a multi-ton mass of water passing through the dam of the world's largest hydroelectric power station every second to squeeze through an ordinary water tap within the same second, only then will we get an indirect idea of ​​how the laser beam differs from the light of all other sources); they are used by publicists as a means of vivid speech expression (In recent weeks, hydraulic builders have been gradually narrowing the riverbed ... Two stone ridges as if rushing towards each other. And how swift the course of the great Russian river has become!).

And at the same time, the assignment of comparison to lexical figurative means is to a certain extent conditional, since it is realized not only at the lexical level: comparison can be expressed by a word, a phrase, a comparative phrase, a subordinate clause, and even an independent sentence or a complex syntactic whole.

The very attribution of comparison to tropes causes controversy among linguists. Some believe that in comparisons the meanings of words do not change; others argue that in this case, too, there is an “increment of meaning” and figurative comparison is an independent semantic unit. Only with this understanding of comparison can it be considered a trope in the exact meaning of the term.

Comparison is the simplest form of figurative speech. Almost any figurative expression can be reduced to comparison (cf. the gold of the leaves - the leaves are yellow, like gold, the reeds are dozing - the reeds are motionless, as if they are dozing). Unlike other tropes, comparison is always binomial: it names both compared objects (phenomena, qualities, actions).

When compared with other tropes, comparisons also stand out due to their structural diversity. Usually they act in the form of a comparative turnover, joined with the help of unions like, exactly, as if, as if, as if, etc. [Good and warm, like in the winter by the stove and the birches stand like big candles(Ec.); The heavens are falling down like a curtain fringe... (Past.)]. The same subordinating conjunctions can also attach comparative subordinate clauses: Golden foliage swirled in pinkish water on a pond, like butterflies, a light flock with fading flies to a star(Es.).

Comparisons often take the form of nouns in the instrumental case (his beaver collar is silvered with frosty dust ... - P.). Such comparisons perform the syntactic function of the circumstance of the mode of action. Comparisons expressed by the form of the comparative degree of the adverb are close to them, they also characterize the action (I am after her. She ran lighter than young chamois. - Bat.). There are comparisons that are introduced by the words similar, similar, reminiscent, acting as a predicate (Maple leaf reminds us of amber. - Z.).

The comparison is drawn up as a separate sentence, beginning with a word and related in meaning to the previous ones. Such comparisons often close detailed artistic descriptions, as, for example, in the “Bakhchisarai Fountain” by A.S. Pushkin: Water murmurs in marble and drips with cold tears, never ceasing. This is how a mother cries in the days of sorrow for her son who died in the war. .

The comparison can be expressed in the form of a rhetorical question (O mighty lord of fate! Is it not so that you raised Russia on its hind legs above the abyss itself, at the height of an iron bridle?- P.)

In the works of oral folk art, negative comparisons are common. From folklore, these comparisons passed into Russian poetry (Not the wind, blowing from a height, sheets touched on a moonlit night; you touched my soul - it is anxious, like sheets, it, like a harp, is multi-stringed. - A.K. T.). In negative comparisons, one object is opposed to another ( It's not the wind that rages over the forest, it's not the streams that run from the mountains- the frost-voivode patrols his possessions. - N.).

Indefinite comparisons are also known; they give the highest assessment of what is described, but does not receive a specific figurative expression ( Do not tell, do not describe what kind of life when you hear your own artillery in a battle behind someone else's fire. - Tward.). Indefinite comparisons also include the folklore stable turnover, neither in a fairy tale to say, nor to describe with a pen.

Sometimes for comparison, two images are used at once, connected by a divisive union: the author, as it were, gives the reader the right to choose the most accurate comparison (Khandra was waiting for him on guard, and she ran after him, like a shadow or a faithful wife. - P.). In figurative speech, it is possible to use several comparisons that reveal different aspects of the same subject (We are rich, barely from the cradle, with the mistakes of the fathers and their late mind, and life is already tormenting us, like a smooth path without a goal, like a feast at a stranger's holiday. - L.).

Comparisons that point to several common features in the compared items are called extended comparisons. The extended comparison includes two parallel images in which the author finds much in common. The artistic image used for a detailed comparison gives the description a special expressiveness:

The origin of design is perhaps best explained by comparison. (...) Design is lightning. For many days, electricity accumulates above the ground. When the atmosphere is saturated with it to the limit, white cumulus clouds turn into menacing thunderclouds and the first spark is born in them from a thick electric infusion - lightning.

Almost immediately after the lightning, a downpour falls on the ground.

(...) For the appearance of an idea, as well as for the appearance of lightning, most often an insignificant push is needed. (...)

If lightning is a plan, then a downpour is the embodiment of a plan. These are harmonious streams of images and words. This is a book.

(K.G. Paustovsky)

2.2.4.9. Hyperbole and litote

Hyperbole (from Gr. gyperbolē - exaggeration, excess) is a figurative expression consisting in an exaggeration of the size, strength, beauty, meaning of the described (My love, wide as the sea, can not accommodate the life of the coast. - A.K. T.).

Litota (from Gr. litótēs - simplicity) is a figurative expression that underestimates the size, strength, meaning of the described (- Your Spitz, lovely Spitz, no more than a thimble. - Gr.). Litota is also called inverse hyperbole.

Hyperbole and litotes have a common basis - a deviation from an objective quantitative assessment of an object, phenomenon, quality - therefore they can be combined in speech (Andersen knew that it was possible to love every word of a woman, every lost eyelash, every speck of dust on her dress. He understood this. He thought that such love, if he let it flare up, would not fit the heart. - Paust.).

Hyperbole and litotes can be expressed by linguistic units of different levels (word, phrase, sentence, complex syntactic whole), therefore, referring them to lexical figurative means is somewhat conditional. Another feature of hyperbole and litotes is that they may not take the form of a trope, but simply act as an exaggeration or understatement (Don’t be born rich, but be born curly: at the pike’s command, everything is ready for you. What the soul wants, it will be born from the earth; profit crawls and falls from all sides. ts.). However, more often hyperbole and litotes take the form of various tropes, and irony always accompanies them, since both the author and the reader understand that these figurative means do not accurately reflect reality.

Hyperbole can be "layered", superimposed on other tropes - epithets, comparisons, metaphors, giving the image features of grandiosity. In accordance with this, hyperbolic epithets are distinguished [Some houses are as long as the stars, others as long as the moon; to the skies of baobabs (Lighthouse); Steamboat in standing fires (Lug.)], hyperbolic comparisons (... A man with a belly, similar to that gigantic samovar, in which sbiten is brewed for the entire vegetative market. - G.), hyperbolic metaphors (The fresh wind intoxicated the elect, knocked them off their feet, resurrected them from the dead, because if they didn’t love, it means and did not live and did not breathe! - High). Litota most often takes the form of comparison (Like a blade of grass, the wind of a young man sways ... - Rings.), Epithet (A horse is led by the bridle by a peasant in large boots, in a sheepskin coat, in large mittens ... and he is with a marigold! - N.).

Like other tropes, hyperbole and litotes are common language and individual author's. Common language hyperboles include: to wait for an eternity, to strangle in an embrace, a sea of ​​tears, to love to the point of madness, etc.; litotes: wasp waist, two inches from a pot, the sea is knee-deep, a drop in the sea, close - at hand, drink a sip of water, etc. These tropes are included in the emotionally expressive means of phraseology.

2.2.4.10. paraphrase

Paraphrase (periphrase) adjoins lexical figurative means, which, as a composite speech unit, gravitates towards phraseology. Periphrase (from periphrasis - retelling) is a descriptive phrase used instead of any word or phrase (Most of times burning to the ground and rising from the ashes, Moscow, even left after Peter the Great " porphyritic widow", - did not lose its meaning, it continued to be the heart of the Russian nationality, the treasury of the Russian language and art, the source of enlightenment and free thought even in the darkest of times. - A. T.).

Not all paraphrases are metaphorical in nature, there are also those in which the direct meaning of the words that form them is preserved [city on the Neva, sniffing part of the body (nose) (G.)]. Such periphrases, in contrast to figurative ones, can be defined as non-figurative. Only figurative paraphrases belong to paths, since only in them words are used in a figurative sense. Ugly periphrases are only renaming of objects, qualities, actions. Compare: the sun of Russian poetry - the author of "Eugene Onegin", the golden calf - banknotes - the first phrases are metaphorical in nature, therefore, these are figurative paraphrases; the latter consist of words used in their exact lexical meanings and are non-figurative paraphrases.

Paraphrases can be general language and individual author's. General language paraphrases become stable, phraseologized or are on the way to phraseologization (our smaller brothers, a green friend, a country of blue lakes). Such periphrases are usually expressively colored.

Even more expressive are the individual author's paraphrases, they perform an aesthetic function in speech [A sad time! Oh charm! (P.); Have you heard beyond the grove the voice of the night singer of love, the singer of your sorrow (P.), I greet you, desert corner, haven of peace, work and inspiration(P.)]. In such figurative paraphrases, metaphors, epithets, evaluative vocabulary are often used. They can give artistic speech a variety of expressive shades - from high pathos (Run, hide from the eyes, Cythera is a weak queen! Where are you, where are you storm of kings, proud singer of freedom?- P.) to a relaxed, ironic sound (Meanwhile, as rural cyclops before slow fire Russians are treated with a hammer, a lung product of Europe, blessing the ruts and ditches of the fatherland ... - P.).

In paraphrases, as noted by L.V. Shcherba, one feature stands out, and all the others seem to be obscured, therefore, periphrases enable the writer to pay attention to those features of the objects and phenomena depicted that are especially important for him artistically (The last thing you should not talk about, but just shout about, is about the ugly treatment of Oka - wonderful, second after the Volga, the Russian river, the cradle of our culture, the birthplace of many great people whose names all our people are rightfully proud of. - Paust.).

Unlike figurative periphrases, non-figurative ones perform not an aesthetic, but a semantic function in speech, helping the author to more accurately express an idea, to emphasize certain features of the described object. In addition, the use of paraphrases helps to avoid repetition. For example, in an article about Pushkin, the author calls him a brilliant student of Derzhavin, a brilliant successor to Zhukovsky, the creator of the Russian literary language, the author of Eugene Onegin, etc., replacing the poet's surname with these paraphrases. M.Yu. Lermontov in the poem "Death of a Poet" wrote about Pushkin: a slave of honor, a wondrous genius, our glory - all these are paraphrases.

Ugly paraphrases are also used to explain words and names little known to the reader (Persian poet Saadi - crafty and wise sheikh from the city of Shiraz- believed that a person should live at least ninety years. - Paust.). Paraphrases that serve to clarify certain concepts are widely used in non-artistic speech (All the outer parts of the root, its skin and hairs, consist of cells, that is, deaf bubbles or tubules, in the walls of which there are never holes. - Tim.). In special cases, such paraphrases can also perform a stylistic function of reinforcement, emphasizing a word that is important in meaning (... A decrease in the cost of green mass will also entail a decrease in the price of livestock products, source of dynamic energy for general consumption).

The use of some lexical paraphrases is stylistically limited. So, paraphrases of an emphatically polite style of explanation were archaic (I dare to report, as you deigned to notice, I have the honor to bow, etc.).

There are paraphrases of a euphemistic nature (they exchanged pleasantries instead of: they scolded each other). Such general language paraphrases are used most often in colloquial speech (wait for the addition of the family, set the horns, etc.). In works of art, such euphemisms are a source of humor [Here Bulba added such a word to the line, which is not even used in print(G.); - Doctor, doctor, can't you warm me from the inside? (Tward.)]. The appeal to such paraphrases is due to the author's desire to give speech a casually conversational tone.

2.2.5. Stylistically unjustified use of tropes

The use of tropes can cause a variety of speech errors. Unsuccessful imagery of speech is a fairly common flaw in the style of authors who have poor pen skills. The steppe bloomed: like torches, there were red and yellow tulips, blue bells, steppe poppies, writes the essayist, not noticing that he is comparing blue bells that are unlike them with torches.

The objective similarity of objects approaching in the path is a necessary condition for the figurative power of figurative word usage. However, in speech practice this condition is often violated. The judge was as simple and modest as like his office, - read in the note; She was also sweet and even sweeter, than her white dress with blue polka dots, - we find in the essay. What similarity did the authors of these lines see in the compared objects? One involuntarily recalls the ironic comparison of A.P. Chekhov: "Looks like a nail to a memorial service." Appeal to paths should be stylistically motivated. If the content of the statement does not allow the emotionality of speech, metaphorization cannot be justified. Unreasonable fascination with tropes in the pursuit of "beautiful" speech leads to a heap of metaphors, paraphrases, epithets, comparisons that perform only an ornamental function, which creates verbosity: men”... The rhetoric of such tirades gives them a parodic coloring, causing the reader to smile. Tropes are especially abused by sports commentators (Today, capital fighters of the blade are sorting out; An exciting duel of chess Amazons will last tomorrow; Two, whose name is teams, went out onto the icy stage in order to argue in a swift dialogue, in the language of hockey, which of them is stronger, smarter, more courageous, nobler).

The grandiloquent sound of metalogical speech, creating false pathos and inappropriate comedy, was not so long ago a hallmark of the journalistic style. In small notes, which had a strictly informative purpose, they wrote: The installers crossed the equator of the installation work; Milkmaids enthusiastically prepare cows for the technical revolution on the farm; Our pupils (about cattle) became fathers and mothers of new dairy herds; A billion poods of grain - this is what a wreath of ears was woven last year by Ukraine alone! The desire of journalists to give speech a special effect with the help of tropes in such cases created an inappropriate comedy. The journalism of the 1990s got rid of this vice. Now in newspapers we often meet ironic paraphrases. So, in a sports report, the journalist used a paraphrase in the heading “In the city of three revolutions, there was no fourth” and further, describing a football match in St. Petersburg, he constantly resorts to ironic paraphrases:

It was quite possible to give the Moscow railway station in St. Petersburg and Nevsky Prospekt that day and evening Spartak names because of the northern capital of Spartak fans. Many people got here with the help of a sort of four-stage electric train relay through Tver, Bologoe, Malaya Vishera. In the city of three revolutions they definitely feared that these young people would not create a fourth, but it seemed to pass.

They had a chance to hear a lot of strong words about the St. Petersburg police, and the Izvestia correspondent was ready to share their indignation when it took more than an hour to get from the bus stop near the stadium to the gate. First, one cordon held back the crowd, then the second, and only at the gates it was necessary to behave in accordance with the recommendation of Nikolai Fedorov, head of the St. police corridors better immediately pretend to be a prisoner of war and open your outer clothing...

Metalogical speech is always expressive, so tropes usually coexist with emotional-evaluative vocabulary and are used together with other means of speech expression. Turning to tropes in genres that exclude the use of expressive elements (for example, in a protocol, an explanatory note, a report, etc.) leads to a mixture of styles, creates inappropriate comedy: claimed two young lives; The mayor's office shows constant concern for the improvement of residential areas; three quarters of the city busy with green friends; The gifts of the land are well preserved.

The use of tropes can cause ambiguity in the statement or distort the author's thought. More M.V. Lomonosov warned that cluttering up speech with "figurative words" gives "more of this darkness than clarity." This should be remembered by those who write: Experienced fire tamers will perform before the audience (you might think that these will be fakirs, but in fact we are talking about firefighters); They will visit the residents of the microdistrict folk avengers(a meeting with former partisans is being prepared); Factory forges keys to underground storage(meaning drilling rigs for oil production).

The greatest threat to accuracy and clarity of speech is posed by paraphrases, to which journalists are particularly fond.

In texts of a strictly informative purpose, figurative paraphrases should not be used [ Moscow captains of land ships you have to deal with leaf fall in autumn, with sleet in winter, all year round with inexperienced neighbors on the highway(better: Moscow taxi drivers have to overcome the difficulties associated with leaf fall in autumn, black ice in winter, and constantly meet inexperienced drivers on the highway)]. In publicistic works that allow the use of emotionally expressive means of speech, the use of figurative paraphrases should be approached very carefully.

The ambiguity of the statement can also arise with antonymy: the name used as a trope must be sufficiently known, otherwise the reader will not understand the figurative expression. For example; Robin Hoods are trumpeting the collection, - says the note, however, not everyone can understand the meaning of this information, which requires the reader to have special training in foreign literature. Another author clearly overestimates the reader's memory for the names of the heroes of the detective genre: The police officer has a weapon and knows the techniques of sambo. However, the main strength of the Aniskins lies elsewhere.

In other cases, an inappropriate synecdoche distorts the meaning of the statement: the stewardess looked at me with a gentle eye and skipped ahead (the use of the singular instead of the plural suggests that the stewardess had only one eye). Another example: We are experiencing an acute shortage of working hands: we have twenty-five of them, and the same number is required (the specialists got an odd number of hands).

One should also beware of unjustified exaggeration, which causes distrust and surprise of the reader. So, the journalist writes about his hero: He loved more than life his profession as a digger for her special, modest, discreet beauty. Distorts the meaning of the statement and unjustified litotes: Small Siberian town Angarsk, well known to speed skating fans for its two high-speed skating rinks, has been replenished with one more colleague - the Ermak skating rink (Angarsk is a large city, a developed industrial center); Former world champion received microscopic advantage...

With metaphorical word usage, ambiguity sometimes appears, which also interferes with the correct understanding of the statement. Thus, in an essay on the new Russian farmers we read: It was difficult for them to take the first step, and even more difficult to follow this path. But those who chose him strong hands and great will. And therefore they will not turn off the chosen path ... (it may seem to the reader that the heroes are planning to walk on their hands).

A serious flaw in metalogical speech is the inconsistency of the paths connected by the author. Using several metaphors, epithets, comparisons, the writer must observe the unity of the figurative system so that the paths, developing the author's thought, complement each other. Their inconsistency makes metalogical speech illogical: The young shoots of our figure skaters went out on the ice (the shoots don’t walk); Today the Sports Palace put on everyday clothes: it is surrounded by construction sites ... an indoor skating rink, a swimming pool, a complex of sports grounds will grow here (the metaphors of clothes and playgrounds do not match, a skating rink, a pool cannot grow); A person is a blank board, on which the external environment embroiders the most unexpected patterns (you can draw on the board, but not embroider, but embroider on the canvas, and the comparison of a person with a board cannot but cause objections).

Parodic examples of the combination of contradictory images were played by M. Bulgakov in the play "Running". The journalist, deprived of the ability to soberly assess the situation, exclaims: "The worm of doubt must dissipate," to which one of the officers skeptically objects: "The worm is not a cloud and not a battalion." The remark about the commander of the white army: "He, like Alexander the Great, walks on the platform," raises the ironic question: "Did Alexander the Great have platforms?"

The metaphorical meaning of a word should not conflict with its objective meaning. For example: Following tractors and wheeled tractors, gray country dust jumps along the road - the metaphorical use of the verb does not give rise to an image (dust can rise, swirl).

The words used in the paths must be combined with each other and in their direct meaning. Wrong, for example, the metaphor is built: Returning home, Logacheva, together with fellow villagers, began heal scars wars: buried trenches, dugouts, bomb craters - scars do not heal, they remain forever like traces of previous wounds. Therefore, when stylistically editing this sentence, it is better to abandon metaphorization: Returning home, Logacheva, together with her fellow villagers, tried to destroy the traces of the war: they filled up trenches, dugouts, bomb craters.

Figurative speech can be both high and low, but, using tropes, one must not violate the law of aesthetic correspondence of converging concepts. So, the reader’s negative assessment is caused by a comparison in poetic lines: You don’t let me open your mouth, but I’m not the Mother of God, and gray hair - she is not a louse - not from dirt, tea, starts. We are used to thinking about gray hair with respect, and the decline of this concept seems unmotivated.

G.R. Derzhavin was criticized by his contemporaries for comparing poetry with lemonade in the ode "Felitsa" (Poetry is kind to you, pleasant, sweet, useful, like summer lemonade). V.G. Belinsky ridiculed A. Marlinsky for the metaphor: "bite of passion." Parodying the “wild approximation of objects that are not approachable,” the critic wrote: “The third eccentric ... will drag out: “What is pasta with parmesan, what is Petrarch to read: his poems sweetly glide into the soul, like these oiled, round and long white threads slide down the throat ... ".

Many writers, analyzing the use of tropes, emphasized the inadmissibility of comparing disparate objects. So, M. Gorky pointed out to the young writer his comparison: “... Black eyes shone, like convex socks of brand new galoshes bought last week". The comical comparison here is due to the discrepancy between the aesthetic assessment of the compared objects.

When using tropes, it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the content of speech. More M.V. Lomonosov in "Rhetoric" remarked: "It is obscene to transfer words from low things to high things, for example: instead of rain it is obscene to say the sky spits." This requirement cannot be ignored even today. It is impossible, for example, when describing the rewarding of a driver who committed a heroic deed, to resort to derogatory epithets, as a journalist did: He stood on the podium and squeezed the medal with his rough, rough fingers and did not feel metal... It is also unacceptable to aestheticize phenomena that are devoid of a romantic halo in our view (All living tax is employed in the removal of organic fertilizers, work is in full swing, but minor notes are woven into this major symphony...).

Metaphorical expressions should not "undermine" the logical side of speech. In the famous lines from the song “The mind gave us steel wings, and instead of a heart, a fiery motor"pilot Valery Chkalov did not like the metaphor, and he remarked to the author: if the engine catches fire, the plane crashes, the pilot dies, so the poetic image in this case is unsuccessful ... Nevertheless, such "misses" in metalogical speech are not isolated. Without thinking about the meaning of the comparison, the journalist writes: For some reason, the ship always goes home faster, as if he wants to quickly snuggle up to his native land. However, the navigator knows that if the ship “presses” against the shore, there will be an accident, or even the death of the ship.

The manifestation of the main, ugly meaning of words in metalogical speech is the most unforgivable mistake of the author, the result of which is an inappropriate comic utterance (Behind the Glass stand cuddled up. Scott, Gorky, Balzac, Maurois...; Liza and her mother lived in poverty, and in order to feed her old mother, poor Liza gathered flowers in the field ...).

In fiction, the loss of a figurative meaning by a metaphor can be used to achieve a comic effect. A stylistic device consisting in the use of a metaphorical expression in the literal sense is called the realization of a metaphor. For example, N.A. Nekrasov jokingly plays up the metaphor not to be held with his teeth:

How did you express

Your lovely feelings!

Remember, you are especially

I liked my teeth.

How did you love them?

How kissed, loving!

But with my teeth

I didn't hold you...

The implementation of a metaphor is usually used in humorous, satirical, grotesque works.

The destruction of the figurative meaning of the trail as a speech error leads to an inappropriate pun, creates an ambiguity in the statement: Underground heroes in the fourth quarter came out to higher levels(the reader might think that now the miners will extract coal in new, "higher" seams); Neither Karin Enke from Germany nor Ali Borsma from Holland could not organize a chase for Tatyana Tarasova (about competitions in speed skating).

The realization of a metaphor is opposite to the emergence of “involuntary tropes” in speech, when autological speech is transformed into metalogical speech in the mind of the reader. At the same time, the words used inaccurately due to the author's negligence acquire a new meaning in the reader's perception. Most often, an involuntary personification appears in speech (Motors obtained after overhaul, have a very short life; two rolls took off their shirts and rolled in an arbitrary position on the rolls standing at the end). Against the wishes of the authors, involuntary epithets sometimes appear in the texts (Millions winged and wingless enemies of orchards and orchards will be destroyed), metaphors (In the field trailer, the boundaries of the collective farm hang on the walls), metonymy [The work of the toilet shop (about the shop that produces toilet soap) deserves high praise], synecdoche (Engineering thought penetrated into sewer system; An accordion was found at the scene, on which glued girl) etc. The “unforeseen figurativeness” that arises in such cases, or rather, the incorrect perception of autological speech as metalogical, gives the statement comedy, distorts its meaning.

Figurative means of language

From the writer's work on the dictionary, it is most natural to move on to the use of those possibilities that represent the figurative means of the language. Word appears here before him already not only in its solid lexical meaning, but also in its poetic "polysemy".

In order to understand the peculiarity of this problem, let us turn to an example that has already gained classical fame. Young Grigorovich asked Dostoevsky to read his essay "Petersburg Organ Grinders" in the manuscript. Dostoevsky "didn't like ... one expression in the chapter "The Organ Grinder's Public". I had it written like this: “When the hurdy-gurdy stops playing, the official from the window throws a nickel, which falls at the organ grinder’s feet.” “Not that, not that,” Dostoevsky suddenly spoke irritably, “not at all. It turns out too dry for you: a nickel fell at your feet ... You should have said: “A nickel fell on the pavement, ringing and bouncing ... " This remark, I remember very well, was a whole revelation for me. Yes indeed, ringing and bouncing comes out much more picturesque, finishes the movement ... these two words were enough for me to understand the difference between a dry expression and a lively, artistic literary device.

This case is notable precisely because it takes us beyond the limits of pure communicativeness. From the point of view of the latter, it was enough to say that "the nickel fell at his feet." The replacement proposed by Dostoevsky and accepted by Grigorovich preserved the necessary communicative function of this phrase and at the same time almost re-created its expressiveness. As a result of their mutual combination, this such a successful image was born.

The meaning of stylistic images varies depending on the literary direction, to which their creator adjoins, from his theoretical views on the poetic role of the word. So, classicism cultivated a certain system of images provided for by the canons, one for high tragedy, the other for "low" comedy. Let us recall, for example, the paraphrases to which the classics were so fond of resorting and which Pushkin subsequently so resolutely criticized from the standpoint of realism.

Romanticism He overthrew these stylistic canons of his predecessors and opposed them with the principle of absolute freedom of figurative means. In the works of the Romantics, these latter received an extraordinary quantitative distribution: let us recall, for example, the early works of Hugo, in our case - Marlinsky, and also the young Gogol. “Like a powerless old man, he held in his cold embrace the stars that shone dimly in the warm ocean of night air, as if anticipating the imminent appearance of the brilliant king of the night.” In this short excerpt from "Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka" there are more images than lines. However, this abundance is unbridled - it does not lead Gogol to create one central image that would unite them in a coherent poetic picture.

Only artistic realism managed to bring this abundance to the limits. In the works of the realistic type, the stylistic image ceased to be an end in itself and became a very important, but still auxiliary means of characterizing the phenomenon depicted. For a realistic writer working on an image, the same sense of proportion is highly characteristic, which distinguishes the entire aesthetics of this trend. Realist writers do not brush aside stylistic imagery, they care about the boldness and novelty of poetic semantics. However, they are steadily striving to ensure that these figurative means of language are conditioned by the general concept of the work, the filling of characters, etc.

Of course, this conditionality is not developed immediately, young writers have to use a lot of effort before they are able to renounce, on the one hand, from the barren "ugliness", and on the other, from excess, hypertrophy of imagery.

An example of the first can, as we have already seen, be Grigorovich's work on The Petersburg Organ Grinders, an example of the second is Gogol's work on Evenings on a Farm. As Mandelstam noted, the image “the young night has long embraced the earth” “indicates that the artist did not think about words; if “for a long time the night embraced the earth”, she could not be “young”, just come ... ““ Inspirationally stuck black eyes”, - inspiration is accompanied by humility, in the tender heart of a woman - all the more so: sticking would go to a state of anger, indignation; “passionate marble breathes, lit by a wonderful chisel,” - marble began to breathe only lit by a chisel; in itself, marble is precisely impassive ... ", etc. All these examples cited by the researcher indicate that Gogol did not feel at that time the measure of images and did not care about the harmony necessary for them. If he had said “the night has long embraced the earth” or “the young night has already embraced the earth”, this image would have retained its internal integrity.

Only in progress persistent and persistent work on stylistic images reaches the writer of the necessary to him expressiveness. Going this way, he usually repeatedly changes the initial sketches, until he finally reaches the most satisfying image, fully, accurately and at the same time concisely characterizing reality. Let's try to illustrate this process of reworking with a few specific examples from the practice of Russian classics.

Let's start with Pushkin's work on epithet. In this extremely concise definition, the writer captures the phenomenon he observes with particular expressiveness, and therefore it is far from accidental that it was Pushkin who paid especially much attention and care to this work on the epithet. Let us recall how, for example, in The Prisoner of the Caucasus, Pushkin changes the draft verse “And the Cossack falls from a secluded mound”: the epithet he introduces “from the bloodied mound” connects the scene of action with the character much more closely and at the same time distinguishes two consecutive events - the Cossack falls after the mound was stained with his blood. Although this sequence is not quite typical, it, in any case, characterizes one of the distinguishing properties of Pushkin's epithet, which, in the words of Gogol, "is so distinct and bold that sometimes one replaces a whole description."

The persistence with which Pushkin sought more expressive epithets is perfectly characterized by the draft manuscripts of Eugene Onegin. Speaking about the tutor who raised the young Eugene, Pushkin first writes: “Monsieur is a noble Swiss”, then “Monsieur is a very strict Swiss”, “Monsieur is a very important Swiss”, and only after trying these three options, he writes: “Monsieur l’Abb ?, a wretched Frenchman”, excellently characterizing with this epithet those downtrodden foreign educators, of whom there were so many in the noble capital of the beginning of the last century. In a draft of the XXIV stanza of the second chapter, Pushkin wrote:

Her sister's name was... Tatyana

(For the first time with such a name

pages of my novel

We will willfully sanctify).

The third verse did not satisfy the poet, partly because of the discrepancy (“mine” and “we”), partly because of the neutrality of the epithet, and Pushkin begins to sort through all sorts of epithets until he finally finds the necessary one: “Pages of our novel ...” (the discrepancy has been eliminated, but the epithet is still neutral), “The bold pages of the novel ...”, “New pages of the novel ...”, “Tender pages of the novel ...”. The epithet "gentle" satisfies Pushkin - he tells the story that emotionality that is organically inherent in the image of Tatyana and her experiences: "her pampered fingers did not know needles", "everything for a tender dreamer was clothed in a single image", "and a fiery and tender heart", etc.

The accuracy of the epithet, which Pushkin sought with such perseverance, is evidenced by at least his characterization of A. A. Shakhovsky (Chapter I, stanza XVIII). Pushkin first speaks of the "variegated swarm of comedies" that the "tireless Shakhovskaya" brought out. The epithet, however, does not satisfy the poet, and he replaces it: "there he brought out the sharp Shakhovskoy." However, this second epithet is also discarded and a third one is introduced instead, which is fixed in the final text of this stanza: “There, the sharp Shakhovskoy brought out his comedies, a noisy swarm.” The epithet "sharp" is beautiful: it speaks of the satirical orientation of Shakhovsky's works and, at the same time, of its insufficient depth - Shakhovsky's comedies are not "sharp", they are just "sharp".

While persistently striving to make his epithets as expressive as possible, Pushkin is at the same time ready to give them up in cases where the epithet does little to characterize the phenomenon. So it was, for example, with the description of the ballerina Istomina, who flies "like light fluff from the lips of Eol." Not satisfied with the epithet "light", Pushkin changed it several times ("like a gentle fluff", "like a quick fluff") and in the end preferred to write: "it flies like fluff from the mouth of Eol". The absence of an epithet not only did not harm the comparison, but, on the contrary, made it even more expressive.

Similar striving for specificity and specificity We also find it in Gogol's stylistic practice.

In the early edition of Taras Bulba it was: “And the Cossacks, lying down a little to the horses, disappeared in the grass. Even the black caps could no longer be seen, only the quick lightning of the compressed grass showed their run. In the latest edition, this place is read as follows: “And the Cossacks, bending down to their horses, disappeared in the grass. Even the black caps could no longer be seen; only a stream of compressible grass showed the trace of their fast run. The original image of the “lightning”, which was not very capable of characterizing the “compressible grass”, was replaced by an image that “speaks more to the imagination, as a closer comparison, reminiscent of reality.” In the same way, great picturesqueness is given to another scene of the story "Taras Bulba", depicting the preparation of the Cossacks for the campaign. The poet had to imagine that “the whole living shore was oscillating and moving” - and here are the moments of this “movement”, this “oscillation”; they were not in the first edition. How much the final passage: "the whole coast got a moving look" is pale in comparison with the final touch: "the whole swayed and moved the living coast"!

Such coinage characterizes not only Gogol's romantic works - we will meet her in the most prosaic episodes of Dead Souls. Let's take, for example, the description of Sobakevich's appearance, which in the first edition was described quite extensively: the complexion of Sobakevich's face "was very similar to the color of a recently knocked out copper penny, and in general his whole face was somewhat less than this coin: it was the same squashed, awkward, only difference was that instead of a two-headed eagle there were lips and a nose." In the third, last, edition of this chapter, this comparison looks like this: "The complexion had a red-hot, hot, which happens on a copper penny." Gogol shortened here the previously common comparison of the face with various details of the penny, and at the same time emphasized in his comparison the peculiar color of this face; the comparison has become more concise and expressive from this revision.

From this, of course, one should not conclude that Gogol always strove for a concentration of stylistic images. In particular, he appreciated the expressive power of comparisons and knew how to enhance it. Let us recall how he said in the first edition of Taras Bulba about Andria, who “also plunged into the charming music of swords and bullets, because nowhere will will, oblivion, death, pleasure are united in such seductive, terrible charm as in battle.” It is noteworthy that these lines did not satisfy Gogol with their abstractness and brevity, he tried to unfold them in a lengthy comparison of the battle with “music” and “feast”: “Andriy was completely immersed in the charming music of bullets and swords. He did not know what it meant to ponder, or calculate, or measure in advance one's own and other people's strengths. He saw furious bliss and ecstasy in battle: something feasting ripened for him in those moments when a man’s head flared up, everything flickers and interferes in his eyes, heads fly, horses fall to the ground with thunder, and he rushes like a drunk, in the whistle of bullets, in a saber glare and strikes everyone and does not hear the inflicted. It is unnecessary to dwell on how this expansion of the original image helped to reveal Andriy's experiences - and above all, to characterize his military prowess.

The epithet, comparison, metaphor and all other types of tropes are subject in their development to the general tendencies of the writer's work, due to his searches and the literary and aesthetic program created on the basis of these searches. This dependence is especially evident in the stylistic practice of L. Tolstoy. It is known with what perseverance he fought for public accessibility of literary speech. Already in an early diary, the writer pointed out: "The touchstone of a clear understanding of the subject is to be able to convey it in a common language to an uneducated person." And later, paradoxically sharpening his thought, Tolstoy demanded that "every word should be understood by that cart driver who will carry copies from the printing house." It was from these positions of an extremely “simple and clear language” that he fought against the conventions of romanticized speech, in particular against the “beautifulness” of its epithets and comparisons. “Turquoise and diamond eyes, golden and silver hair, coral lips, golden sun, silver moon, yakhont sea, turquoise sky, etc. are common. Tell me the truth, is there anything like that? .. I do not interfere with comparing with precious stones, but it is necessary that the comparison be true, but the value of the object will not make me imagine the object being compared either better or clearer. I have never seen coral lips, but I have seen brick; turquoise eye, but saw the colors of loose blue and writing paper. This rebuke to romantic style was made in the very first years of Tolstoy's literary activity, but he could have repeated it later.

In this regard, the admission of N. Ostrovsky about his mistake in the book “How the Steel Was Tempered” is extremely curious: “... There, in forty editions, the “emerald tear” is repeated. I, due to the simplicity of my work, missed that the emerald is green. Bearing in mind similar cases, Furmanov wrote: “Epithets must be especially successful, accurate, appropriate, original, even unexpected. There is nothing more colorless than stereotyped epithets - instead of clarifying the concept and image, they only obscure it, because they drown it in the gray thick of universality.

Oversaturation with epithets met with strong condemnation from Chekhov. “You have,” he wrote to Gorky in 1899, “so many definitions that it is difficult for the reader’s attention to understand, and he gets tired. It is clear when I write: "a man sat down on the grass"; it is understandable because it is clear and does not hold attention. On the contrary, it is incomprehensible and heavy for the brain if I write: “a tall, narrow-chested, medium-sized man with a red beard sat down on the green grass already crushed by pedestrians, sat down silently, timidly and timidly looking around.” It does not immediately fit in the brain, and fiction should fit immediately, in a second. As if continuing this idea of ​​Chekhov, A. N. Tolstoy objected to the excessive metaphorization of narrative speech: “When I write: “N. N. walked along a dusty road”, you see a dusty road. If I say "N. N. walked along a dusty road, like a gray carpet, ”your imagination should imagine a dusty road and pile a gray carpet on it. Presentation on presentation. No need to force the reader's imagination like that. Metaphors must be handled with care."

In Russian literature, there was, perhaps, no other writer with such a wary attitude towards this source of poetic imagery. “What is needed,” said L. N. Tolstoy, “is avarice of expression, avarice of words, the absence of epithets. An epithet is a terrible, vulgar thing. The epithet should be used with great fear, only when ... when it gives some intensity to the word ... "

Leo Tolstoy constantly tends to simple, sometimes even rude, images. The researcher of Kholstomer correctly notes such a deeply characteristic description of "fragrant porridge": instead of the previous definition of this flower - "with its spicy, rotten smell", Tolstoy corrects - "with its pleasant spicy stink." “The replacement is typical for Tolstoy. He is by no means attracted by the goodness of the phrase, but only the power of the word and its expressiveness, the originality and often even the rudeness of the word, its "common people" are important. “I got down into the ditch and drove the bumblebee that had climbed into the flower ...” he corrects - “I drove the hairy bumblebee that had stuck into the middle of the flower and sweetly and languidly fell asleep there” - details-epithets, for Tolstoy valuable for their organicity and concreteness. At another time he adds "the stalk was already all in tatters"; again this is a purely Tolstoyan metaphor, that is, an extremely precise and at the same time sharp and powerful word. “Agricultural” epithets are added to the word “field” - “plowed chernozem fields” or “nothing was visible except black, evenly invaded, not yet twisted steam”. In this and similar edits by L. Tolstoy, there is not a single word that would not be subordinated to one of the leading trends in his aesthetics, steadily striving for the ultimate general accessibility of literary speech, its rough and vigorous expressiveness.

As is clear from the examples above, writer's work over stylistic images ongoing methodically and often for a long time. Gorky carries it out not only in the manuscript, but in almost every printed edition of his works. Let us recall the extremely characteristic editing of the images of the story "Mother", specially examined by S. M. Kastorsky, as well as the stylistic revision of "Chelkash", "Foma Gordeev", "Mother" and "The Case of Artamonov" relatively recently noted by N. P. Belkina. The trends in this processing are varied. They are manifested, firstly, in the simplification of images, in the liberation of speech from figurative congestion. So, from the phrase "Mothers" "And he sang, drowning out all sounds with his kind smiling voice," Gorky removes both of her epithets - "kind" and "smiling." Eliminating excessive elation of style, Gorky also removes the underlined epithets of the phrase: “In a cramped room, huge, immense feeling world spiritual kinship of the workers of the earth...” He also struggles with superfluous images that sound like a tautology, replacing them with new characterizing means of speech. So, for example, in the phrase "Konovalov" "Hot blocks of firewood burned hot in him" Gorky changes the self-evident epithet "hot" to "long". In the phrase “And the owner, a crude and obese man, with slanting eyes swollen with fat,” Gorky changes “fat” to “chubby”, and makes the owner’s eyes “multi-colored”, thereby giving his appearance a new, peculiar feature.

The insistence with which Gorky seeks exact definitions is remarkable, and at the same time his unwillingness to overload his speech with them. A typical example of the first is the double change of the epithet in the Artamonov Case. Having first written: "Alexei's wife... walking lightly on the deep, clean sand," Gorky then changes it: "walking lightly on the deep sand" and corrects a second time: "walking lightly on the crushed sand." Needless to say, how successful this repeated replacement was: the cleanliness of the sand in this case was not important, it was, of course, difficult to walk easily on deep sand, and it was another matter to walk on sand already “mashed up” by others. The dynamics of comparison in “Foma Gordeev” carries the same clarifying function: “a huge crowd of people flowed like a black river” (first edition), “it poured like a black ribbon ...” (second edition), “it flowed like a black mass ...” (fourth edition of the story)

Gorky's attitude to stylistic imagery is free from any touch of dogmatism. He throws out an image where the latter seems superfluous to him (“he sang in a drawn-out tenor - drawled and sang in a plaintive voice - sang out a drawl”), and at the same time introduces new images, enlivening with them the former inexpressive text. A characteristic example of the latter is the correction in Foma Gordeev: “Horror aroused in him the face of his father” (first edition); "Horror aroused in him the black, swollen face of his father." Two newly introduced epithets in the fourth edition create a dramatic depiction of death.

All of the above testifies to the exclusive attention of the writer to the problem of the author's language. He solves it in several aspects, at the same time developing the composition of the dictionary, establishing the figurative content of lexical means and their syntactic arrangement within the text. The living unity of these three aspects is already manifested in the language of the character, which the writer will always have to make dependent on the character of the character. This is even more directly revealed in the language of the writer himself: here, poetic speech is conditioned, among other things, by a general ideological concept that the writer seeks to embody in verbal images. No matter how varied this work of the writer on language may be, it solves the problem in all cases.

This work requires from the writer great taste and endurance, but there are no other, easier ways at his disposal. For the poetic word is for him not only a material, but also a specific instrument of creativity, like a melody for a composer, marble for a sculptor, paint for a painter.

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26. Figurative codes A variety of figurative codes are widely used in mnemonics. A figurative code is a visual image rigidly attached to some element of information (for example, a two-digit number). The figurative code is memorized so that its recall is

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Appendix 4 Figurative codes of numbers Figurative codes of two-digit and three-digit numbers are based on an alphanumeric code: 1 GZh 2 DT 3 KH 4 ChShch 5 PB 6 SHL 7 SZ 8 VF 9 RTs 0 NM An example of compiling words from letter combinations: 900 RTs NM NM Coding by phrases is often used

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Figurative codes for the names of the months 01 January ... tree 02 February ... medal 03 March ... mimosa 04 April ... drop 05 May ... dove 06 June ... leaves 07 July ... strawberries 08 August ... apples 09 September ... transporter 10 October ... ice 11 November ... snow 12 December ...

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Figurative codes of letters of the alphabet B… BurV… RifleG… Rake… BoardE… UnitY… YorshikZh… Brazier3… StrawberryI… PortholeY… YoghurtK… CoffeeL… LaptiM… T-shirtN… ThreadO… HoopP… PackageR… RapierS… ChestT… TabletU… DillF… ChipX… RobeTz… ChainCh… BlueberrySh… Washer …

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4.14 Figurative codes for three-digit numbers (000-999)

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4.15 Figurative codes of names of months Figurative codes of names of months are selected arbitrarily by means of symbolization or binding to well-known information. These figurative codes are used to remember the names of months in exact dates, as well as in some other

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4.16 Figurative codes for the days of the week Figurative codes for the days of the week are useful for remembering various schedules. For example: the schedule of lessons at school, at the institute, the schedule of trains. These figurative codes can be used to remember your own affairs in

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4.17 Figurative codes of letters of the alphabet Figurative codes of letters of the alphabet can be composed arbitrarily. The main thing is that they do not intersect with other figurative codes. So, the figurative codes that you used to encode the letters of the Russian alphabet should not be used when

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4.18 Phonetic figurative codes Phonetic figurative codes are used to quickly and very accurately memorize the pronunciation of new foreign words. Phonetic figurative codes can intersect with other figurative codes, since memorization with their help is

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4.19 Other figurative codes Figurative codes are the language of mnemonics. Without knowledge of the system of figurative codes, memorization will turn into torment. Each time, it will take a painfully long time to select images for the remembered elements of information. Pre-learned figurative codes make

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Auxiliary means of language The reliability of people's speech communication is increased with the help of auxiliary (paralinguistic) means: the rate of speech, accentuation of part of the statement, emotional coloring, timbre of the voice, its strength, diction, gestures and facial expressions. Consider

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Intuitive understanding does not require language, however.

Lexical means

Trope- a turn of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense in order to achieve greater artistic expressiveness. The path is based on a comparison of two concepts that seem close to our consciousness in some respect. The most common types of tropes: allegory, antonyms, hyperbole, irony, litotes, metaphor, metonymy, polysemy, personification, homonyms, paraphrase, synecdoche, synonyms, comparison, emotional vocabulary, epithet.

Allegory(allegory) - a trope, which consists in an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept with the help of a specific, life image. For example, in fables and fairy tales, cunning is shown in the form of a fox, greed - a wolf, deceit - snakes, etc.

Antonyms- Words that have opposite meanings. For example, the truth is a lie, the poor is rich, love is hate, a sloth is a needlewoman.

Hyperbola- a figurative expression containing an exorbitant increase in the size, strength, value of some object, phenomenon. For example,

“And now goodbye, look for me at distant lands, at distant seas, in the kingdom of the thirtieth, in the sunflower state, at Koshchei the Immortal.” (Russian folk tale "The Frog Princess")

“Why, Malchish, did Forty Tsars and Forty Kings fight with the Red Army, fought, fought, but only crashed themselves?” (A. Gaidar "The Tale of a Military Secret, of Malchish-Kibalchish and his firm word").

Irony- a trope consisting in the use of a word or expression in a sense opposite to the literal one for the purpose of ridicule. For example,

“From where, smart, are you wandering, head? - in reference to the donkey. (I.A. Krylov)

Litotes- 1. A figurative expression with a deliberate understatement of the size, strength, significance of any object, phenomenon. For example,

Quieter than water, lower than grass. (Russian folk tale "The wolf and the seven kids")

2. A stylistic figure that includes the definition of a concept or object by negating the opposite. For example, he is not stupid; not without help.

Metaphor- the use of a word in a figurative sense based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena in some respect. For example,

Silk grass entangled the legs ... (Russian folk tale "Sister Alyonushka and brother Ivanushka")

A silk coat, a golden tail, a fiery eye - oh, a good fox-sister / (Russian folk tale “Cat-vorkot, Kotofey Kotofeevich”).

The breeze asked as it flew by:

- Why are you golden rye?

- And in response, the spikelets rustle: -

- Golden hands are growing!

(E. Serova).

Metonymy- the use of the name of one object instead of the name of another object on the basis of an external or internal connection between them. For example,

Immediately mothers, nannies and red girls gathered and began to weave and embroider carpets - some with silver, some with gold, some with silk. (Russian folk tale "The Frog Princess")

Polysemy- (polysemy) - the presence of several interconnected meanings in the same word, usually resulting from the development of the original meaning of this word. For example, earth, scythe, go.

personification- a trope, consisting in attributing to inanimate objects the signs and properties of living beings. For example,

... Sleepy birches smiled,

Tousled silk braids,

Rustling green earrings,

And silver dews are burning.

The wattle fence has an overgrown nettle

Dressed in bright mother-of-pearl

And, swaying, he whispers playfully:

"Good morning!"

(S. Yesenin "Good morning")

... The blasted road is dormant.

She dreamed today

What is very, very little

It remains to wait for the gray winter.

(S. Yesenin "Fields are compressed ...")

Homonyms Words that sound the same but have different meanings. For example, mow, flow.

paraphrase- trope, which consists in replacing the name of a person, object or phenomenon with a description of their essential features or an indication of their characteristic features. For example, The king of beasts instead of a lion.

Synecdoche- a kind of metonymy, which consists in transferring meaning from one phenomenon to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them: the use of the name of the whole instead of the name of the part, the general instead of the particular and vice versa. For example,

Well then, sit down, luminary. (V. Mayakovsky)

And it was heard until dawn how the Frenchman rejoiced. (M. Lermontov)

Synonyms- words that are close or identical in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing either in a shade of meanings, or in stylistic coloring, or in both.

# absolute synonyms (behemoth-hippopotamus);

# ideographic synonyms (fast, fast);

# contextual synonyms (hoarse, strangled voice);

# single-root synonyms (sit - sit);

# stylistic synonyms (face - mug).

Comparison- a trope, consisting in likening one object to another on the basis of a common feature they have. The comparison can be expressed:

a) instrumental case. For example,

Smoke pours out of the ears. (Russian folk tale "Sivka-burka").

Yes, and Kot Kotofeich came out: his back was an arch, his tail was a pipe, his mustache was a brush. (Russian folk tale “Cat-vorkot, Kotofey Kotofeevich”)

b) the comparative degree of adjectives or adverbs. For example, Morning is wiser than evening. (Russian folk tale "Vasilisa the Beautiful")

c) turns with comparative unions. For example,

And from the dancer there was only sparkle. But she no longer sparkled - she turned black as coal. (G.H. Andersen "The Steadfast Tin Soldier")

And she herself is majestic, Acts like a pava; And how it speaks, Like a river murmurs.

(A. S. Pushkin "The Tale of Tsar Saltan, of his glorious and mighty son, Prince Gvidon Saltanovich, and the beautiful Swan Princess")

d) lexically (in words exactly, similar, similar). For example, White, like snow. (Russian folk tale "Snow Maiden")

Emotional-evaluative vocabulary- including:

1) words denoting emotions and feelings (laughter, fear, anger, joy, shame, anger, kindness, interest, grief, curiosity);

2) words, the emotional significance of which is given by suffixes of emotional evaluation (pails, jug, apple, song, sour cream, butter, sister, chanterelle, spinning top, mustache, paws, teeth);

3) evaluation words that characterize an object or phenomenon from a positive or negative point of view, with all its composition, lexically (clever, well done, good fellow, poor thing, talker, beauty, white hand, braggart, parasite, shameless, poor fellow);

4) words characterizing the moral qualities of a person (kind, honest, curious, etc.).

Epithet- artistic, figurative definition, type of trail, expressed:

1) an adjective defining a noun. For example, dead silence (Turkmen fairy tale "The Blue Bird").

2) noun-application. For example, in the morning-light (Russian folk tale “Seven Simeons - seven workers”), Frost-voevoda (Ya.A. Nekrasov “It is not the wind that rages over the forest ...”);

3) an adverb defining the verb. For example,

The wind blows merrily

The ship is running merrily...

A.S. Pushkin "The Tale of Tsar Saltan, his son, the glorious and mighty hero Prince Gvidon Saltanovich and the beautiful Princess Swan")

Permanent epithet- in folk poetry. For example, blue sea (A. S. Pushkin Tale "Goldfish"), red maiden (Russian folk tale "The Frog Princess").

Syntactic means

stylistic figure- turn of speech, a syntactic construction used to enhance the expressiveness of an utterance. The most common: anaphora, antithesis, non-union, gradation, inversion, multi-union, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, silence, ellipsis, epiphora.

Anaphora- repetition of the same elements at the beginning of each parallel row (verse, stanza, prose passage). For example,

They took the bags

They took the books

Took breakfast

Under the arm...

(S. Marshak "The First of September")

Brought oatmeal -

He turned away from the cup.

Brought him radishes -

He turned away from the bowl.

(S. Marshak "Mustache-striped")

And the mountains are getting higher, and the mountains are getting steeper

And the mountains go under the very clouds!

(K. Chukovsky "Aibolit")

Antithesis- a sharp opposition of concepts, thoughts, images. Often based on antonyms. For example,

They take the old man's daughter in gold, in silver, but they don't marry the old woman. (Russian folk tale "Morozko")

He does not jump, he does not jump,

And he weeps bitterly...

(K. Chukovsky "Aibolit")

Asyndeton- unionless connection of homogeneous members of the proposal. For example,

And the mouse hid in the mink ~ it is shaking, it seems to be a cat ... (Russian folk tale “Fear has big eyes”)

Fear has big eyes ~ what they don’t have, and they see it ... (Russian folk tale “Fear has big eyes”)

They will sit at the table - they will not praise. (Russian folk tale “Winged, furry and oily”)

gradation- a stylistic figure, consisting in such an arrangement of parts of the statement (words, sentence segments), in which each subsequent contains an increasing (less often decreasing) semantic or emotionally expressive meaning, due to which an increase (less often weakening) of the impression they produce is created. The gradation can be ascending or descending. For example,

The sparrow got angry ~ stomped its legs, flapped its wings and let's scream ... (Russian folk tale “Winged, furry and oily”)

She took the mouse and rushed into the pot. She was scalded, scalded, barely jumped out / The fur coat came out, the tail trembled. She sat down on a bench and shed tears. (Russian folk tale “Winged, furry and oily”)

Are you warm girl? Are you warm, red? Are you warm, honey? (Russian folk tale "Morozko")

Inversion- the arrangement of the members of the proposal in a special order that violates the usual (direct order). For example,

Kolobok is rolling along the road ... (Russian folk tale "Gingerbread Man")

The wolf sat at the hole for a long time, did not move all night. (Russian folk tale "Sister Fox and the Gray Wolf")

The cat and the rooster rejoiced. (Russian folk tale "Zhikharka")

polyunion- a deliberate increase in the number of unions in the sentence, due to which the role of each of them is emphasized, the unity of the enumeration is created, and the expressiveness of speech is enhanced. For example,

Yes, all with guns, yes, all with rattles! (Russian folk tale “Fear has big eyes”)

Yes, how he jumps, but how he snorts, and how he grabs the oily side ... (Russian folk tale “Winged, furry and oily”)

Parallelism- the same syntactic construction of neighboring sentences or segments of speech. For example,

And the granddaughter is coming, she has buckets - three-three-three! And some water from buckets - pleh-pleh-pleh!

And the hen hurries after them, and she has three-three-three buckets! three or three! Some water in buckets is splashing - splash-splash-splash! bang-bang! (Russian folk tale “Fear has big eyes”)

Well, kiss Zhiharka, well, hug Zhiharka. (Russian folk tale "Zhikharka")

They lay high fires,

Boilers are burning,

Sharpen damask knives...

(Russian nar. Fairy tale "Brother Ivanushka and sister Alyonushka")

And the fox came to Aibolit:

"Oh, a wasp stung me!"

And the watchdog came to Aibolit:

“A chicken pecked on my nose!”

(K. Chukovsky "Aibolit")

A rhetorical question- contains an affirmation or negation in the form of a question that is not expected to be answered. For example,

Is that how they sleep? She turned the kitten over, laid it down as it should. (S. Marshak "Mustache-striped")

Sat down and chuckled

At the door.

Who will feed the crumbs

Cesarean?

(I. Tokmakova "Doves")

Rhetorical address- the statement is addressed to inanimate objects. For example,

Hello finger! How are you? (N. Sakonskaya)

Don't blow the autumn wind

What are you blowing in vain?

(O. Vysotskaya "October Holiday")

Eh, you! Mushroom something...

She didn't say anything and ran away. (V. Suteev "Under the Mushroom")

Ellipsis- omission of elements of the statement, easily restored in a given context or situation. For example,

A pancake ran into the hut ~ a mouse is sitting on a bench, its fur coat has come out, its tail is trembling. (Russian folk tale “Winged, furry and oily”)

Epiphora is the opposite of anaphora. It consists in repeating the same elements at the end of each parallel row (verse, stanza, sentence). For example,

No, I'll eat you, swallow you, with sour cream, butter and sugar. (Russian folk tale “Winged, furry and oily”)

And Aibolit got up, Aibolit ran ... (K. Chukovsky "Aibolit")

Literature

The concept of figurative speech

1. Akhmanova O. S. Dictionary of linguistic terms. - M., 1966.

2. Gavrish N.V. Development of imagery of speech // Issues of speech development of preschoolers. - M., 1998, p. 18-20.

3. Rosenthal D. E., Telenkova M.A. Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms. - M, 1985.

4. Ushakova O. S. Development of speech of preschoolers. - M., 2001.

The development of imagery when working on the semantic side of the word

1. Gorbachevich K.S., Khablo EM. Dictionary of epithets of the Russian literary language.-L., 1979.

2. Ivanova N.P. Vocabulary exercises // Preschool education, 1978, No. 7, pp. 22-28.

3. Kolunova L.A., Ushakova O.S. "Smart boy". Work on the word in the process of developing the speech of older preschoolers // Preschool education,! 994, No. 9, p. 11-14.

4. Come up with a word / Ed. O.S. Ushakova. - M., 2001.

5. Strunina EM. Development of children's vocabulary // Mental education of preschool children / Ed. N.N. Poddiakova, F.A. Sokhi-pa. - M., 1984, pp. 153-159.

6. Strunina E.M. Lexical development of preschoolers // Preschool education, 1991, No. 7, p / 49.

7. Tarabarina T.N., Sokolova E.I. Both study and play: Russian language. - Yaroslavl, 1997.

8. Ushakova O. S. The development of children's speech in the classroom // Preschool education, 1980, No. 10, pp. 38-42.

9. Ushakova. O.S., Strunina E.M. “Here are needles and pins coming out from under the bench” // Preschool education, 1995, No. 12, pp. 31-34.