Romanesque architecture. How is Romanesque different from Gothic? Romanesque style where it originated

Romanesque style - an artistic style that dominated Western Europe, as well as affecting some countries of Eastern Europe, in the XI-XII centuries (in a number of places - and in the XIII century), one of the most important stages in the development of medieval European art.

The development of Romanesque architecture was associated with monumental construction, which began in Western Europe at the time of the formation and flourishing of feudal states, the revival of economic activity and the new growth of culture and art. The monumental architecture of Western Europe originated in the art of the barbarian peoples. These are, for example, the tomb of Theodoric in Ravenna (526-530), church buildings of the late Carolingian era - the court chapel of Charlemagne in Aachen (795-805), the church in Gernrod of the Ottonian period with its plastic integrity of large masses (second half of the 10th century) .

Tomb of Theodoric in Ravenna

Combining classical and barbarian elements, distinguished by severe grandeur, she prepared the formation of the Romanesque style, which further developed purposefully over two centuries. In each country, this style developed under the influence and strong influence of local traditions - ancient, Syrian, Byzantine, Arabic.

The main role in the Romanesque style was given to severe fortress architecture: monastic complexes, churches, castles. The main buildings during this period were the temple-fortress and the castle-fortress, located on elevated places, dominating the area.

Romanesque buildings are characterized by a combination of a clear architectural silhouette and concise exterior decoration - the building has always blended harmoniously into the surrounding nature, and therefore looked particularly solid and solid. This was facilitated by massive walls with narrow window openings and stepped-in-depth portals. Such walls carried a defensive purpose.

The main buildings during this period were the temple-fortress and the castle-fortress. The main element of the composition of the monastery or castle is the tower - donjon. Around it were the rest of the buildings, made up of simple geometric shapes - cubes, prisms, cylinders.

Features of the architecture of the Romanesque Cathedral:

The plan is based on an early Christian basilica, that is, a longitudinal organization of space
Enlargement of the choir or the eastern altar of the temple
Increasing the height of the temple
Replacing the coffered (cassette) ceiling with stone vaults in the largest cathedrals. The vaults were of several types: box, cross, often cylindrical, flat along the beams (typical of Italian Romanesque architecture).
Heavy vaults required powerful walls and columns
The main motive of the interior - semicircular arches

Chapel of Penitent Sinners. Beaulieu-sur-Dordogne.

Germany.

A special place in the construction of large cathedrals in Germany was occupied in the 12th century. powerful imperial cities on the Rhine (Speyer, Mainz, Worms). The cathedrals erected here are distinguished by the grandiosity of massive clear cubic volumes, an abundance of heavy towers, and more dynamic silhouettes.

In Worms Cathedral (1171-1234, ill. 76), built of yellow-gray sandstone, the divisions of volumes are less developed than in French churches, which creates a feeling of monolithic forms. Such a technique as a gradual increase in volumes, smooth linear rhythms is not used either. The squat towers of the crossroads and four high round towers with cone-shaped stone tents at the corners of the temple on the western and eastern sides, as if cutting into the sky, give it the character of a severe fortress. Smooth surfaces of impenetrable walls with narrow windows dominate everywhere, only sparingly enlivened by a frieze in the form of arches along the cornice. Slightly protruding lisen (shoulder blades - vertical flat and narrow ledges on the wall) connect the arched frieze, plinth and galleries in the upper part. In Worms Cathedral, the pressure of the vaults on the walls is relieved. The central nave is covered with a cross vault and brought into line with the cross vaults of the side aisles. For this purpose, the so-called "connected system" was used, in which for each span of the central nave there are two side spans. The edges of the external forms clearly express the internal volumetric-spatial structure of the building.

Worms St. Peter's Cathedral

Abbey Maria Laach, Germany

Liebmurg Cathedral, Germany

Bamberg Cathedral, east façade with two towers and polygonal choirs

France.

Most monuments of Romanesque art them in France, which in the 11-12 centuries. It was not only the center of philosophical and theological movements, but also the wide dissemination of heretical teachings, to a certain extent overcoming the dogmatism of the official church. In the architecture of Central and Western France, there is the greatest variety in solving structural problems, a wealth of forms. The features of the Romanesque style temple are clearly expressed in it.

An example of it is the church of Notre-Dame la Grande in Poitiers (11-12 centuries). This is a hall low, low-lit church, with a simple plan, with a low-protruding transept, with a poorly developed choir, framed by only three chapels. Almost equal in height, the three naves are covered with semi-cylindrical vaults and a common gable roof. The central nave is immersed in twilight - light penetrates it through the rarely located windows of the side aisles. The heaviness of the forms is emphasized by a squat three-tiered tower above the crossroads. The lower tier of the western façade is divided by a portal and two semicircular arches extending into the thickness of the steppe. The upward movement, expressed by small pointed towers and a stepped pediment, is stopped by horizontal friezes with sculptures of saints. Rich ornamental carving, typical of the Poitou school, spreads over the surface of the wall, softening the severity of the building. In the grandiose churches of Burgundy, which took first place among other French schools, the first steps were taken to change the design of vaulted ceilings in the type of basilica church with a high and wide middle nave, with many altars, transverse and lateral ships, an extensive choir and a developed, radially located crown. chapels. The high, three-tiered central nave was covered with a box vault, not with a semicircular arch, as in most Romanesque churches, but with light lancet outlines.

An example of such a complex type is the grandiose main five-aisled monastery church of Cluny Abbey (1088-1107), which was destroyed in the early 19th century. Serving as the center of activity of the powerful Cluniac order of the 11th-12th centuries, it became a model for many temple buildings in Europe.

She is close to the temples of Burgundy: in Paray le Manial (beginning of the 12th century), Vesede (first third of the 12th century) and Autun (first third of the 12th century). They are characterized by the presence of a wide hall located in front of the naves, the use of high towers. Burgundian temples are distinguished by the perfection of forms, the clarity of dissected volumes, the measured rhythm, the completeness of the parts, their subordination to the whole.

Monastic Romanesque churches are usually small in size, the vaults are low, the transepts are small. With a similar layout, the design of the facades was different. For the southern regions of France, near the Mediterranean Sea, for the temples of Provence (in the past an ancient Greek colony and a Roman province), a connection with ancient late Roman order architecture is characteristic, the monuments of which are preserved here in abundance; facades, sometimes reminiscent of Roman triumphal arches (Saint Trophime Church in Arles, 12th century). Modified domed structures penetrated the southwestern regions.

Priory of Serrabona, France

Italy.

There was no stylistic unity in Italian architecture. This is largely due to the fragmentation of Italy and the attraction of its individual regions to the culture of Byzantium or the Romanesque - those countries with which they were connected by long-term economic and cultural communication. Local late antique and early Christian traditions, the impact of the art of the medieval West and East determined the originality of the Romanesque architecture of the advanced schools of Central Italy - the cities of Tuscany and Lombardy, in the 11-12 centuries. liberated from feudal dependence and began the extensive construction of city cathedrals. Lombard architecture was instrumental in developing the vaulted structure and skeleton of the building.

In the architecture of Tuscany, the ancient tradition manifested itself in the completeness and harmonious clarity of forms, in the festive appearance of the majestic ensemble in Pisa. It includes the five-aisled Pisa Cathedral (1063-1118), the baptistery (baptistery, 1153-14th century), the inclined bell tower - campanile (the Leaning Tower of Pisa, begun in 1174, completed in the 13th-14th centuries) and the Camio cemetery -Santo.

Each building juts out freely, standing out with the simple enclosed volumes of cube and cylinder and the gleaming whiteness of marble in the green-grassed square by the shores of the Tyrrhenian Sea. In the breakdown of the masses, proportionality has been achieved. Graceful white marble Romanesque arcades with Roman Corinthian and composite capitals divide the facade and outer walls of all buildings into tiers, lightening their massiveness and emphasizing the structure. Large in size, the cathedral gives an impression of lightness, which is enhanced by inlays of colored marble in dark red and dark green (such decor was typical for Florence, where the so-called “inlay style” became widespread). The elliptical dome above the crossroads completed its clear and harmonious image.

Pisa Cathedral, Italy

After the fall of Ancient Rome, it took several centuries for European culture to overcome the decline that followed the collapse of the ancient world. Term Roman style(from Latin Roma or French Romanesque), very conditional and inaccurate, arose in the first half of the 19th century, historians and art historians drew attention to the fact that the art of the early Middle Ages outwardly resembles ancient Roman art.

Roman style truly fused various elements of Late Antique and Merovinian art (named after the Frankish Merovingian dynasty), Byzantium and the countries of the Middle East.

This style is most fully expressed in architecture. Buildings of this style are notable for their monumentality and rationality of constructions, extensive use of semicircular arches and vaults, as well as multi-figured sculptural compositions. The Romanesque style left its mark on all other types of art: monumental painting and sculpture, arts and crafts. Products of that era were distinguished by massiveness, simplicity of severe forms and bright multicolor.

Roman style was formed in the era of feudal fragmentation, and therefore the functional purpose Romanesque architecture- defense. Such a functional feature of this style determined the architecture of both secular and religious buildings and corresponded to the lifestyle of a Western European person of that time. The formation of the Romanesque style was facilitated by the significant role of monasteries as centers of pilgrimage and culture.

Romanesque church - the main elements of architectural forms

In the feudal castle, which in the Romanesque era was the main type of secular architectural structures, the dominant position was occupied by a tower house, a rectangular or polyhedral shape, the so-called donjon - a kind of fortress within a fortress. On the first floor of the donjon there were utility rooms, on the second - front rooms, on the third - living rooms of the owners of the castle, on the fourth - the dwelling of guards and servants. At the bottom there were usually a dungeon and a prison, on the roof there was a watch platform.

During the construction of the castle, its functionality was ensured and artistic and aesthetic goals were least of all pursued. To ensure defense, castles were built, as a rule, in inaccessible places. The castle was surrounded by high stone (crenellated) walls with towers, a moat filled with water, and a drawbridge.

Gradually, such castle architecture began to influence the city's rich houses, which were built according to the same principles; some of them later spread to monastic and urban construction: fortress walls, watchtowers, city (monastic) gates. The medieval city, or rather, its center, was crossed by two axes-highways. At their intersection there was a market or cathedral square - the center of the public life of the townspeople. The rest of the space was built up spontaneously, however, the building had a predominantly central-concentric character, fitting into the city walls. It was during the XI-XII centuries. a characteristic type of a medieval cramped city arose with narrow high houses, each of which was a closed space in itself. Squeezed between neighboring buildings, with small iron-wrapped doors and windows protected by strong shutters, the house included housing and utility rooms. Gutters lined the twisted, narrow streets. The crowding of buildings, the lack of running water and sewerage often led to terrible epidemics.

Examples of the main types of capitals, columns and supports

Column capital (Romanesque Cathedral of St. Mary Magdalene, Vézelay, France - Vézelay Abbey, Basilique Ste-Madeleine) Column capitals (Cathedral Saint-Lazare, Autun, France - Cathédrale Saint-Lazare d "Autun) Column capital (Lyon, France)

Portals and internal structure of temples

Doorway, Le Puy Cathedral, France - Le Puy Cathedral (Cathédrale Notre-Dame du Puy) Window in the Great Hall, Durham Castle, England - Durham Castle West window of Notre Dame Cathedral in Tournai, Belgium - Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Tournai ( fr.) West nave, church in Poitiers, France - The Église Saint Hilaire le Grand is a church in Poitiers ( fr.) Church of St. Michael in Hildesheim, 1001-31, Germany - St. Michael's Church at Hildeshe Rochester Castle, England - Rochester Castle Windsor Castle, England - Windsor Castle Rialto Bridge, Venice, Italy - Rialto Bridge Pisa Cathedral, Italy - Cathedral of Pisa Church in Aulnay, 1140-70, France - Aulnay Church Durham Cathedral, England - Durham Cathedral White Tower, Chapel of St. John - Tower of London, St. John's Chapel Oratory of Germigny-des-Prés, 806, France - Germigny-des-Prés Le Puy Cathedral, France - Le Puy Cathedral (Cathédrale Notre-Dame du Puy) Rochester Castle, Interior - Rochester Castle, Interior Maria Laach Abbey, Germany - Maria Laach Abbey Tewkesbury Abbey, England - Tewkesbury Abbey Church in the village of Kilpeck, England, doorway - Kilpeck Church Western portal of the Cathedral of St. Martin in Worms, Germany - Kathedrale St. Martin zu Worms German)

The most significant building of Romanesque architecture is the temple (cathedral). The influence of the Christian Church on the spiritual and secular life of that time was enormous.

Religious architecture developed under the strong influence (depending on local conditions) of ancient, Byzantine or Arabic art. The power and severe simplicity of the appearance of Romanesque temples were generated by concerns about their strength and the idea of the superiority of the spiritual over the bodily. The outlines of the forms are dominated by simple vertical or horizontal lines, as well as semicircular Roman arches. The task of achieving strength and simultaneously lightening the structures of the vaults was solved by creating cross vaults formed by two segments of semicircular vaults of equal radius intersecting at a right angle. The temple of the Romanesque style most often develops the ancient Christian basilica inherited from the Romans, which formed a Latin cross in plan.

Massive towers become a characteristic element of the exterior, and the entrance is formed by a portal (from the Latin porta - a door) in the form of semicircular arches cut into the thickness of the wall and decreasing in perspective (the so-called perspective portal).

The interior layout and dimensions of the Romanesque church met cultural and social needs. The temple could accommodate a lot of people of various classes. The presence of naves (usually three) made it possible to distinguish parishioners in accordance with their position in society. Arcades, which came into use in Byzantine architecture, became widespread in Romanesque architecture.

In Romanesque architecture, the heels of the arches rested directly on the capitals, which was almost never done in antiquity. However, this technique became widespread during the Italian Renaissance. The Romanesque column has lost its anthropomorphic meaning, as was customary in antiquity. All columns now have a strictly cylindrical shape without entasis, which was later inherited by the Gothic. The shape of the capital developed the Byzantine type - the intersection of the cube and the ball. In the future, it became more and more simplified, becoming conical. The thickness and strength of the walls, simple masonry with almost no cladding (unlike the ancient Roman) are the main criteria for the construction.

In Romanesque cult architecture, sculptural plasticity became widespread, which, in the form of a relief, covered the planes of walls or the surface of capitals. The compositions of such reliefs, as a rule, are planar, they do not have a sense of depth. The sculptural decor in the form of a relief was located, in addition to the walls and capitals, on the tympanums of the portals and the archivolts of the vaults. In such reliefs, the principles of Romanesque plasticity are most clearly reflected: emphasized graphic and linearity.

The outer walls of the cathedrals were also decorated with stone carvings of floral, geometric and zoomorphic ornaments (fantastic monsters, exotic animals, animals, birds, etc.). The main decor of the cathedral was located on the main facade and inside, at the altar, located on a dais. Decoration was carried out with the help of sculptural images, which were brightly painted.

Romanesque sculpture is characterized by a monumental generalization of forms, deviations from real proportions, due to which one or another created image often becomes the bearer of an exaggeratedly expressive gesture or an element of ornament.

In the early Romanesque style, before the walls and vaults acquired a more complex configuration (end of the 11th-beginning of the 12th century), monumental reliefs became the leading type of temple decor, and wall painting played the main role. Marble inlay and mosaics were also widely used, the technology of execution of which has been preserved since antiquity.

Sculptural reliefs and wall paintings sought to give an instructive meaning. The central place here was occupied by themes related to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe limitless and formidable power of God.

Strictly symmetrical religious compositions were dominated by the figure of Christ and narrative cycles, primarily on biblical and gospel themes (the terrible prophecies of the Apocalypse and the Last Judgment with the presentation of the theological scene of the hierarchical structure of the world, paradise and the righteous, hell and sinners condemned to eternal torment, weighing the good and evil deeds of the dead, etc.).

In the X-XI centuries. the technique of colored stained-glass windows develops, the composition of which at first was very primitive. Glass vessels and lamps begin to be made. The technique of enamel, ivory carving, casting, chasing, artistic weaving, jewelry art, book miniature, the art of which is closely connected with sculpture and wall painting, are developing. All sorts of fences, gratings, locks, hinges for doors and lids of chests, fittings for chests and cabinets, etc. are made of wrought iron in large quantities. Bronze was used for door knockers, which were often cast in the form of animal or human heads. Doors with reliefs, fonts, candelabra, rukomoi, etc. were cast and minted from bronze.

In the XI century. tapestries (woven carpets) begin to be made, on which, with the help of weaving, multi-figure compositions and complex ornamentation are made, which is strongly influenced by Byzantine and Arab art.

Romanesque furniture

The furniture of the Romanesque period exactly corresponded to the mentality and standard of living of a medieval person, satisfying only his elementary needs. It is possible to talk about furniture art, and then with a large degree of conventionality, starting from the 9th century.

Carved oak cabinet, Lower Saxony

Chair in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, Italy - St. Peter's Basilica

The interior of the house was sparse: in most cases, the floor was earthen. Only in the palace of a rich lord or king was sometimes the floor paved with stone slabs. And only a very rich person could afford not only to lay the floor with a stone, but to create an ornament on it with a colored stone. From the earthen and stone floor, from the stone walls in the premises of houses and castles, it was constantly damp and cold, so the floor was covered with a layer of straw. In rich houses, the floor was covered with straw mats, and on holidays - with armfuls of fresh flowers and herbs. In the secular literature of the late Middle Ages, in the descriptions of the houses of kings and noble nobles, the floor in the banquet hall, strewn with flowers, is often mentioned. However, the aesthetic factor played a very small role here.

In the houses of the highest nobility, it was customary to cover the stone walls with carpets brought from the countries of the East. The very presence of the carpet testified to the nobility and wealth of its owner. When the art of making woven carpets (trellises) developed, they began to tighten the wall with them in order to save heat.

The main living space of the signor's house is the central hall, which served as a living room and dining room, in the center of which there was a hearth. The smoke from the hearth came out through a hole in the ceiling of the room. Only much later, in the 12th-13th centuries, did they guess to move the hearth to the wall, and then put it in a niche and equip it with a cap that pulled the smoke into a wide, non-closing chimney. Servants covered the embers with ashes by night to keep warm longer. The sleeping quarters were often made common, so the beds in such sleeping quarters were arranged very wide, where the owners often slept with the guests, warming each other. In rich houses, they began to arrange separate bedrooms, which were used only by the owners of the house and the most honored guests.

The bedrooms for the signor and his wife were usually made in small and cramped side rooms, where their beds were set on high wooden platforms with steps and a canopy that was pulled up to protect against night cold and drafts.

Due to the fact that in the early Middle Ages the technology of manufacturing window glass was not known, the windows were not initially glazed, but were climbed with stone bars. They were made high from the ground and were very narrow, so twilight reigned in the rooms. Spiral staircases were widely used, which was very convenient for moving, for example, along the floors of the donjon tower. The wooden roof rafters from the inside of the building were left open. Only later did they learn to make hemmed ceilings from boards.

The twilight of the cold rooms of the houses of the Romanesque era was compensated by the bright and colorful colors of unsightly furniture, expensive embroidered tablecloths, elegant utensils (metal, stone, glass), carpets, and animal skins.

The range of furniture items in residential premises was small and consisted of various types of chairs, stools, armchairs, beds, tables and, of course, chests - the main furniture objects of that time, less often - cabinets.

At the hearths and at the table they sat on rough-hewn benches and primitive stools, in the boards for sitting of which knots were inserted that served as legs.

Apparently, it was they who were the predecessors of the three-legged stools and chairs, which were very common in Western Europe. Of the antique seating furniture, only one form of a folding stool or chair with X-shaped crossed legs continued to live (like the Greek diphros okladios or the ancient Roman sella curulis - curule chair), easily carried by the servant behind his master. At the table or at the hearth, only the signor had his place. For him, a ceremonial chair or armchair, assembled from turned balusters (rods), with a high back, elbows (or without them) and a footstool was placed to protect the stone floor from the cold. In this era, however, very rarely, wooden chairs and armchairs were made. In Scandinavia, a number of seating areas have been preserved, decorated with through and flat carvings depicting an intricate decorative pattern of fantastic animals intertwined with straps and branches.

Front seats with high backs were also made, which were intended for the highest hierarchs of the church. One of the rare surviving examples that has lost the crossbars on the backs is the episcopal throne of the 11th century. (Cathedral in Anagni). Its decoration, consisting of arches on the front and side walls, is clearly inspired by Romanesque architecture. An example of a folding seat with cruciform legs is the stool of St. Ramon in the Cathedral of Roda de Isabena in Spain, richly decorated with carvings. The legs of the stool end with animal paws, in the upper part they turn into lion heads. An image has been preserved (Durham Cathedral, England) of a seat with a music stand of a very rare type, intended for copyist monks. The seat is equipped with a high back, its side walls are decorated with openwork carved arches. The movable music stand rests on two slats extending from the backrest and fixed in grooves on the top of the front legs. Seating items such as benches were commonly used in temples and monasteries. The decor on the benches was obviously borrowed from the architectural decor and was made in the form of carved or painted arches and round rosettes.

A sample of a richly decorated pew from the church of San Clemente in Taule (Spain, 12th century) has been preserved. This bench, made in the form of a kind of throne, has three seats, separated by columns, between which and the side walls there are three arches. The side walls and canopy are richly decorated with openwork carvings. Once it was painted: in some places traces of red paint have been preserved on it.

In general, the seating furniture was uncomfortable and heavy. There was no upholstery on stools, chairs, benches and armchairs. To hide defects in joints or a poorly finished wooden surface, the furniture was covered with a thick layer of primer and paint. Sometimes the raw wooden frame was covered with canvas, which was covered with primer (gesso) from a mixture of chalk, plaster and glue, and then painted with paints.

During this period, beds are of great importance, the frames of which are installed on turned legs and surrounded by a low lattice.

Other types of beds, decorated with openwork semicircular arches, borrow the shape of a chest and rest on square legs. All beds are equipped with a wooden canopy and canopy, which was supposed to hide the sleeper and protect him from cold and drafts. But such beds belonged mainly to noble nobles and ministers of the church. Beds for poor people were quite primitive and were made in the form of a kind of container for a mattress, similar to a chest without a lid, with a small notch in the middle of the front and back walls. The uprights at the feet ended with chiseled cones, and a high wall with a small wooden canopy was made at the head.

Tables in the early period are still very primitive. This is just a removable board or a roughly knocked together shield, which was mounted on two goats. The expression to set tables came precisely from that time, when, as necessary, tables were set up or removed after the end of the meal. In the mature Romanesque period, rectangular tables are made, the table top of which does not rest on legs, but on two side shields connected by one or two prolegs (longitudinal bars), the ends of which protrude outward and wedged. On such tables there is no carving and decoration, with the exception of a few semicircular fillets and curly cuts on the edges of the sidewalls. More complex in design and shape are tables with round and octagonal tabletops, standing on one central support in the form of a pedestal with a rather complex relief. It is also known that stone tables were often used in monasteries.

But the chest was the most versatile and practical piece of furniture in the Roman era. It could simultaneously serve as a container, a bed, a bench and even a table. The shape of the chest, despite its primitive design, originates from ancient sarcophagi and gradually becomes more diverse. Some types of chests had massive and very high legs. For greater strength, chests were usually upholstered with iron fittings. Small chests could be easily carried in case of danger. Such chests often did not have any decorations and, above all, met the requirements of convenience and strength. Later, when the chest took its special place among other furnishings, it was made on high legs, and the front side was decorated with flat carvings. Being the ancestor of all other forms of furniture that came later, the chest until the 18th century. retained great importance in the setting of the home.

Placed vertically on its side, the chest was the prototype of the cabinet, most often with one door, a gable roof and a pediment decorated with flat carvings and coloring. Its iron fittings are also decorated with curly carvings. Gradually appear, especially in churches, tall cabinets with two doors and short rectangular legs. Church and monastery utensils were stored in them. One of these cabinets is in Aubazia (Corrèze department). Its two front doors are reinforced with iron fittings and decorated with round carved arches, the side walls are decorated with paired arches in two tiers - the decor is clearly architectural in nature; massive legs of the cabinet are a continuation of the vertical racks of the frame. There is a similar cabinet in the Halberstadt Cathedral. This one-door wardrobe is decorated with cut dragons on both sides of the pediment, a carved rosette and bound with massive iron bands. The top of the door is rounded. All this betrays the influence of architecture on furniture decoration, typical of the Romanesque style.

Usually cabinets, as well as chests, were trimmed with iron linings (shackles). It was these wrought iron linings that held the thick raw boards of the product, since the box and frame-panel knitting known from antiquity were not actually used here. Over time, forged lining, in addition to the function of reliability, received decorative functions.

In the manufacture of such furniture, the main role belonged to the carpenter and blacksmith, so the forms of Romanesque furniture are very simple and concise.

Romanesque furniture was made mainly from spruce, cedar and oak. In the mountainous regions of Western Europe, all the furniture of that era was made of soft wood - spruce or cedar; in Germany, the Scandinavian countries and England, oak was usually used.

In the Romanesque era, the largest range of furniture objects, in comparison with living quarters, was intended for cathedrals and churches. Pews with music stands, sacristies, church cabinets, separate reading stands, etc. were widespread in the XI-XII centuries.

Ordinary household furniture, which was made and used by villagers, artisans and small traders, retained its forms, proportions and decorations without any change for several more centuries.

In religious buildings and their furnishings from the second half of the 13th century. the Gothic style begins to spread, which subjugates most Western European countries to its influence. But this new style did not affect folk arts and crafts and furniture making for a long time.

Preserving traditional forms, such furniture only facilitates its proportions, freeing itself from an excessive supply of materials. In urban furniture, starting from the 14th century, elements of Gothic decor applied to the Romanesque design are already beginning to be found.

Used study materials. benefits: Grashin A.A. A short course in the style evolution of furniture - Moscow: Architecture-S, 2007

Roman or Roman style , which the British also call Norman, originated in the art of Western Europe, in the 11th century. He expressed himself especially clearly in architecture. It became a logical continuation of the architecture of antiquity. The monks spread the Romanesque style. For their orders, artels of builders erected buildings in Europe. That's why churches, monasteries and temples are considered the main buildings of Romanesque architecture. Thus, one can once again observe how religion influenced the development of culture.

Characteristic features of Romanesque architecture

Signs of Romanesque architecture

The Roman style is feudal fortresses, monasteries, castles and basilicas, changed under its influence beyond recognition. The new architecture was formed in the 13th century by the Alans, Huns and Goths who arrived from the east. In Europe at that time, wars often flared up, which is why it came in very handy for fortifications in the Romanesque style with semicircular arches, heavy walls and cross or barrel vaults.

Buildings in the Romanesque style have always been concise. These clear, solid and solid buildings were in perfect harmony with the surrounding landscape, thanks to deep portals with steps, massive and even partitions, and narrow window openings. Romanesque architecture is buildings in the form of fortress cathedrals and palaces. In their center is a tower called a donjon, which is surrounded by cubes, prisms and cylinders of other buildings. Stone structures of temples and capitals support huge pillars or pylons. Simple geometric figures, embossed or carved walls became the main features of buildings in the Roman style.

The theological character of Romanesque architecture unifies the unity and forms of its proportionate and neat elements. This strict style does not recognize excesses. Its main feature was and remains practicality. But at the same time, Romanesque architecture allows for rectangular and round windows with canvas shutters. Light openings in the form of shamrocks, eyes and ears are also common.

What is the main thing in Romanesque architecture

Romanesque style of architecture

The Romanesque style is based on massive and huge features. The buildings, as it were, show the power and authority of the owner. It's amazing how such simple and rational buildings crush. Romanesque architecture led to the fact that temple basilicas began to be vaulted. The walls and pylons were also distinguished by their strength and thickness. The space was organized longitudinally. The eastern altar and choir, as well as the temple itself, have increased significantly in size. The coffered cathedral ceiling was replaced with stone vaults. Columns divided the naves into parts.

The Romanesque walls are decorated with painted bas-reliefs. The inside of the building is often carpeted. The interior can also be decorated with embarrassed, tragic or divine sculptures. The medieval atmosphere of Romanesque architecture displaces physicality with its soul. It was she who led to the emergence of the first stained glass windows. The columns and capitals of temples are decorated with various images and motifs.

Turkic and northern Iranian tribes enriched European culture, due to which architecture was synthesized with sculpture. Cathedral portals were crowned with stone sacred characters, which began to influence the worshipers even more.

Features of construction in the Romanesque style

The main building material of Romanesque architecture was stone. At first, fortresses and temples were built from it, but other secular stone buildings soon began to appear. Limestone deposits along the French rivers made it possible to build all the buildings of that time. They even laid out ornaments on the outer walls.

The Italians lined their walls with marble, of which they have plenty. It was hewn or blocks were made from it. Stones for construction in the Middle Ages were smaller than in antiquity. They could easily be obtained from quarries and delivered to construction sites.

With a lack of stone, brick was used, which differed from the modern one in greater thickness and shorter length. This very hard material was heavily fired. Romanesque buildings made of such bricks can still be found in England, Germany, France and Italy.

How did urban settlements develop?

Romanesque cities in Europe became commercial centers, as they were located at the intersection of main roads. Housing here is mostly fortified, and feudal houses look like towers or fortresses.

Romanesque architecture in Britain

The decor of the castles of this country is characterized by minimalism. It was very difficult to build such impressive buildings. They cost a lot, so decoration was not the main task. The stones in the castle walls are carefully fitted, which provides such structures with strength. Window glazing used to be a luxury, so light openings were made small.

English Romanesque architecture

The Romanesque style came to England along with the Norman conquerors. There, instead of wooden towers, they began to build cubic stone structures with two floors. The bivouacs of archers were surrounded by palisades, ditches and donjons, in which they hid from enemy raids. The Tower, built in 1077, is the most famous example of English Romanesque architecture. Its donjon is the White Tower. From the Normans, the British adopted the combination of the monastery and the parish church, as well as the two-tower construction of the western facade. Durham Cathedral is an example of this.

Examples of Roman architecture in Germany

Romanesque architecture in Germany

The German Cathedral of Worms is an excellent example of Romanesque architecture. It was built over 100 years. Here, arched cornice friezes refresh smooth walls and small windows. German castles in the cities of Goslar, Gelnhausen, Seeburg and Eisenach perfectly convey the spirit of the Romanesque era. Their hexagonal courtyards are surrounded by fortified partitions with fortified gates.

How did the Romanesque style affect the architecture of France, Spain and Italy

Romanesque architecture in France

In France, architecture with a Romanesque tinge led to temples for pilgrims with choirs and chapels. Basilicas became three-aisled. The church of Poitiers belongs to the Burgundian school of the Roman era.

In Spain, during the Romanesque period, fortifications for cities and fortified palaces began to be built. Churches and temples were similar to French ones. This is especially evident in the Cathedral in Salamanca.

The Roman direction of architecture forced Italian architects to adhere to the basic and centric types for churches. Samples of this are the Lombard and Tuscan cathedrals with their typical facades, which were decorated with lisen, sculptures, mini galleries and porticos. The Parma architectural ensemble of the baptistery, the church and the bell tower just conveys all this.

The interior of the Romanesque cathedrals from the inside

Interior of Romanesque cathedrals

The temples of the Roman period contained three halls, delimiting the parish premises. Byzantine cylindrical pillars even later moved into the Gothic direction. And cubic capitals intersected by balls. The walls along with them were covered with relief sculptures.

At the beginning of the tenth century, primitive stained-glass windows appeared, which later turned into full-fledged paintings from colored glass multicolor. At the same time, together with them, the interior began to be decorated with glass vessels and lamps.

Famous architectural monuments in the Roman style

Architectural monuments in the Romanesque style

Romanesque architecture is common throughout Western Europe. Expressive cathedral arcades, leaning towers and baptisteries can be seen in Pisa. France is famous for its domed churches. Sicily is full of vaulted buildings with pointed arches.

Impressive and austere Romanesque monuments with small doors and windows and powerful walls are sparingly decorated. These buildings are structurally simple and clear. Most of them are in France. Romanesque churches are calm and solemnly severe. Feudal castles in the form of a fortress have always received and saved the villagers from attacks. These buildings were located on hills so that it was possible not only to defend possessions, but also to observe them. Castles are equipped with drawbridges and fortified portals, surrounded by moats, huge stone walls, on which there are loopholes, towers and battlements.

The monastery of St. Odile in Alsace attracts pilgrims not only with a functioning church, but also with a healing spring, which is useful for the blind.

The Basilica of Saint-Sernin in Toulouse is a memory of the abbey of the same name that once existed. Its Romanesque architecture is famous among visitors, so a spacious hotel is attached to the church for them. The brick basilica differs from typical Romanesque stone structures. Its nave is surrounded by paths convenient for pilgrims.

The UNESCO World Heritage also includes the Romanesque churches that are located in the Val-de-Boie. Churches in the Pyrenean thickets escaped wars and are well preserved. They are the oldest Spanish buildings. Tourists get to the churches along mountain serpentines to see what it is, Romanesque architecture.
The Spaniards especially like to do this. The buildings were built by special architects from Lombardy. They preserved early Roman frescoes, which were transported to the National Museum of Catalonia, in Barcelona. Some churches are located not only in the villages, but also in the mountains. There are cemeteries near the temples.

The old Parisian church of St. Herman in Lugah is very impressive for visiting tourists. Inside the cathedral is quiet and calm. Descartes is buried here. It seems that the Romanesque architecture of the temple helps to distract from bad thoughts. St. Herman, who works miracles, was the protector of the poor. The church is called in the meadows due to the fact that it is located outside the city.

Cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary of the 12th century in Górka

The 12th-century Austrian Cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary in Górk is an example of a Romanesque basilica. He has galleries, a tomb, apses and towers available. The 17th century Belgian Notre Dame Cathedral in Tournai is a major Walloon heritage. This massive building with semicircular arches, five bell towers, a cluster and a Romanesque hall looks very austere. The 12th century Prague rotunda of St. Longinus initially acted as a village parish church. Later it was restored, as it was destroyed.

In France, Romanesque architecture is represented by the Cathedral of St. Trophime of the 15th century in Arles, as well as the church of Saint-Savin-sur-Hartampes of the middle of the 11th century. In Germany, a characteristic example of the described era is the 13th-century imperial church in Bamberg. It is famous for its own four massive towers. The 12th century Irish Cathedral at Clonfert is topped by a Romanesque doorway. It flaunts the heads of people and animals, as well as leaves.

Italy is famous for its 11th-century abbey in Abruzzo and its 12th-century cathedral in Modena, which is a World Heritage Site. In the Netherlands, the Basilica of St. 11th century Servatius in Maastricht. And the Polish bronze doors of the 12th century cathedral in Gniezno are decorated with Romanesque bas-reliefs. There, in Kruszwitz, is the monastery of Peter and Paul of 1120, which was built of granite with sandstone. It has an apse, a presbytery and a transept. The Polish St. Andrew's Church in Krakow was originally built as a defensive object.

Lisbon Cathedral

Portugal also has its own example of Roman architecture - this is the Lisbon Cathedral of 1147. This church is the oldest in the city. It was built in a mixed style, but it is better known for its Roman iron gates. In Slovakia, the Romanesque style is represented by the Cathedral of St. Martin 13th-15th centuries. There are marble tombstones and painted walls that tell of the coronation of Charles Robert of Anjou.

So, if we sum up all of the above, then we can end up with the fact that Romanesque architecture strongly influenced the next development of culture and interior of other periods. It gradually flowed into Gothic, then into Mannerism, and then into the avant-garde.

The Romanesque style in architecture is majestic and massive, its history is rich and stretches for more than a millennium. No frills, only the severity and severity of the appearance. We will talk about the history of the emergence of this style today.

The appearance of the Romanesque style can be attributed to about 800 AD, at the same time the collapse of the great Roman Empire also occurred. The Romanesque style borrowed many of its features from Byzantine Christian art, as well as its early form, took something from Antiquity, even the Middle East contributed its own features to its formation, which lasted from the 10th to the 12th century.

In fact, the Romanesque style is the first medieval example of artistic vision, which united most of the countries of Western Europe and walked along the edge of Eastern Europe. The formation of European medieval art is largely due to the Romanesque style.

Features of the Romanesque style

Among the main features of the style - severity of expression of architectural forms, massiveness, conservatism.

The buildings of this era are not just houses, but castles, churches, outwardly resembling a fortress. In general, architecture has a theological bias. On the one hand, such buildings performed their direct functions, and if necessary, they could hold a siege, since the walls were thick, the windows were often small and round, sometimes they looked more like narrow loopholes, and there could be towers around the perimeter - an excellent place to view military positions.

Outwardly, the building of the Romanesque style can be distinguished by massive walls, heavy semicircular doors, vaulted rooms, and thick columns. Nothing was built from wood - exclusively stone only this material met potential safety requirements.

Inside the Romanesque castles, the corresponding decoration was carried out. The semi-circular arches of the ceiling gave the impression of a reduction in free space. Marble, patterned tiles were most often used for walls, Venetian plaster and painting were used to decorate the walls.

Such interiors could evoke associations of security, heaviness, heaviness, but not elegance. Minimum decor, More military theme- knightly armor, coats of arms, weapons, etc.

Leading colors Romanesque buildings - natural brown, grey, green, black and white. In a word, all natural colors.

In fact, for several centuries of its existence, the pious Romanesque style has not changed much.

Examples of Romanesque buildings

Examples of Romanesque buildings can be found in almost all European cities.

For example, Limburg Cathedral, Lahn Peninsula, Germany - a real example of the classic Romanesque style. It was built in the 13th century and has been excellently preserved to this day. At one time, this cathedral served as a parish church, and then became a cathedral. The square-shaped building is crowned with seven pointed towers. The cathedral seems to strive upward, striking with a multitude of arched windows - narrow and wide. The simplicity of the geometric pattern, the almost complete absence of opulent decoration and the contrasting red and white color of the facades - all this makes the cathedral a prime example of the style under discussion.

pisa cathedral(Italy) was built in 1063 and incorporated all the features of the Romanesque style, plus the features of others, thereby resulting in an unsurpassed Pisan Romanesque style, emphasizing the scope of Pisa's trading business. The huge cathedral of a strict cruciform shape impresses with its size. Gray marble facades emphasize the power of the building, narrow arched windows indicate belonging to the original Romanesque direction. On the four sides of the cathedral there are statues of evangelists, four floors are decorated with columnar arcades. Inside the temple there is a wonderful mosaic, marble decor and an incredible colonnade.

Romanesque style - an artistic style in the architecture and art of Europe in the 11th - 12th centuries. The term was initially applied only to architecture, and later to painting, sculpture and other arts. However, Romanesque is usually called a style that was formed simultaneously in France, Italy, Germany, Spain and England in the 11th century. Despite certain national differences, it became the first truly pan-European style, which distinguishes it from the styles of the "Carolingian Renaissance" and Ottonian art of the post-Roman period. A distinctive feature of the Romanesque style in architecture is massiveness, heaviness, wall thickness, which was emphasized by narrow window openings. This gave the appearance of buildings majesty. The revival of church building after a period of decline, the emergence of monastic orders, the development of more complex forms of liturgy (which required more side chapels and more extensive choirs), and the improvement of the construction technique itself contributed to the construction of more complex church buildings in early Christian traditions. At the intersection of the transept with the longitudinal naves, there was usually a skylight or tower. Each of the main parts of the temple was a separate cell, isolated from the rest. The stone vault was cut through by arches and arcades located at a considerable distance from each other, creating a feeling of inviolability and stability. In the Romanesque period, stone castles appeared, built in the form of huge towers, in which there were living quarters. Common elements of all Romanesque buildings are round arches (as in Roman buildings), which were gradually replaced by pointed (lancet) Gothic ones.

Gothic style- an artistic style in architecture and art that replaced the Romanesque style. Gothic originated in France in the middle of the 12th century, quickly spread to other countries, mainly in Northern Europe, where it dominated until the 16th century.

Initially, the term had a derogatory meaning: the artists of the Italian Renaissance so called the "barbarian" medieval architecture, mistakenly believing that its creators were the Gothic tribes who destroyed the classical art of the Roman Empire. Gothic is still associated mainly with architecture, especially with its three features: the lancet arch; a cross vault supported (or allegedly supported) by intersecting arches, and an arched buttress, that is, an external support not adjacent to the wall, but connected to it by an arch. None of these features were Gothic achievements (they all existed in late Romanesque architecture), but their combination created a new type of frame structure that produced, in contrast to massive, ponderous Romanesque structures, an impression of lightness and airiness.

Another characteristic feature of Gothic architecture, which arose a little later, is the openwork decor that adorns window openings and wall surfaces. Moreover, such a level of skill was achieved in this area that by drawing (or its absence) it was easy to determine belonging to a particular period in the development of Gothic architecture.

The time and place of the birth of the Gothic style can be determined precisely. This is 1140 - 1144, the abbey of Saint-Denis near Paris, where, by order of the abbot of the monastery Suger, one of the famous patrons of the arts of that time, the church was rebuilt. Only a small part of the building, the covered arcade of the choir, has survived, but it remains one of those structures that revolutionized European architecture. Instead of heavy structures of the Romanesque style, slender supports, arches and cross vaults appeared, creating a feeling of grace and lightness. In Gothic cathedrals, windows increased to such a size that they formed a translucent wall.

Later, French Gothic becomes even more decorative. "Radiant" and "flaming" Gothic, having spread almost throughout Europe, in many countries took on peculiar forms.

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE ROMANSKY STYLE

Western European architecture of the 11th-13th centuries is usually called Romanesque, since it inherited some features of the architecture and certain building techniques of the Romans, and was also most common among the Romanesque peoples. Both are conditional, since the period under consideration goes far beyond the indicated features and is a bright and original phenomenon that has practically spread to the architecture of all countries of Western Europe. This is the historical style of the mature Middle Ages, characterized by common types of buildings, their constructive techniques and means of expression. Romanesque proper< периоду (XI-XIII вв.) предшествовал довольно длительный период архитектуры раннего средневековья (V-X вв.). Главная роль в романском стиле отводилась суровой, крепостного характера архитектуре: монастырские комплексы, церкви, замки располагались на возвышенных местах, господствуя над местностью. Церкви украшались росписями и рельефами, в условных, экспрессивных формах выражавшими могущество Бога. Вместе с тем полусказочные сюжеты, изображения животных и растений восходили к народному творчеству. Высокого развития достигли обработка металла и дерева, эмаль, миниатюра.

The architecture of the early Middle Ages bears traces of a general relative stagnation in the development of the economy and culture of Western European countries. The construction achievements of the ancient Romans were largely lost, the level of construction technology decreased. With the development of feudal relations, new types of fortified dwellings of feudal lords, monastic complexes and develops religious building, in which there are both centric types of composition (mainly baptistery) and basilica. The leading place in the formation of the western medieval temple is occupied by basilica. The origins of the medieval basilica go back to late Roman architecture, when the type early Christian church. Among them, built by Constantine basilica of st. Petra in Rome 330g. and a number of temples that followed it in Rome and other cities (the Basilica of St. Paul in Rome, IV-V centuries; the Basilica of St. Apolinarius in Ravenna, VI century, etc.). They were a frontal-axial composition with a space elongated along the main axis, divided by two or four rows of columns into three to five naves. The middle one was much wider and taller than the rest and was illuminated through the windows arranged in the upper part of the walls. The rows of piers separating the naves were usually made in form arcade on columns , the spans between them had flat ceilings on wooden beams, in the main nave suspended from wooden trusses. In the depths of the middle nave, where the altar was installed, an apse was made, and to expand the pre-altar space intended for the clergy, a transverse nave was often arranged - transept. In front of the building, a courtyard surrounded by galleries was sometimes arranged. - atrium in the middle of which stood a bowl for the rite of baptism.

In the further development, this type of basilica was improved by increasing the area for the altar and the choir located in front of the altar, as well as the appearance of an additional room in front of the main hall - narthex, Where allowed“catechumens”, i.e. people who have not yet converted to Christianity. Sometimes in large temples, the side naves were divided into two tiers. The device of the second tier made it possible to increase the capacity of the temple. So, in XI V. the traditional scheme of the basilica has developed with a plan in the form of a Latin cross (with one elongated branch), with a transept and three apses, of which the central one is sufficiently enlarged to accommodate the monks' choir. The western end of the church, where the choir for the laity was located, was usually flanked by two towers, since in addition to their main functions, temples often had an important defensive value. Later, in some churches above the crossroads (the intersection of the middle nave and transept) a dome or a cone-shaped tent was erected. Along with the basilica, the so-called hall temples in which, unlike the basilica, the middle nave did not have a significant excess over the side ones. Source: http://superinf.ru/view_helpstud.php?id=569

Feudalism developed in Germany later than in France, its development was longer and deeper. The same can be said about the art of Germany. In the first Romanesque cathedrals, similar to fortress, with smooth walls and narrow windows, with squat conically completed towers at the corners of the western facade and apses * both on the east and west sides, they had a severe, impregnable appearance. Only arcade belts * under the cornices adorned smooth facades and towers (Worms Cathedral, 1181-1234). Worms Cathedral is a powerful dominant of the longitudinal hull, likening the temple to a ship. The side naves are lower than the central one, the transept * crosses the longitudinal building, above the crossroads * - a massive tower, from the east the temple is closed by a semicircle of the apse. * There is nothing superfluous, destructive, veiling the architectonic logic.

The architectural decor is very restrained- just arcatures * emphasizing the main lines.

Romanesque art in Italy developed differently. It always feels "unbreakable" even in the Middle Ages connection with Ancient Rome.

Since cities, not churches, were the main force of historical development in Italy, secular tendencies are more pronounced in its culture than in other peoples. The connection with antiquity was expressed not only in copying ancient forms, it was in a strong inner relationship with the images of ancient art. Hence "a sense of proportion and proportion to a person in Italian architecture, naturalness and vitality, combined with the nobility and grandeur of beauty in Italian plastic and painting."

The outstanding works of architecture of Central Italy include the famous complex in Pisa: a cathedral, a tower, a baptistery. It was created over a long period of time (in the 11th century, the architect Buschetto, in the XII century. - architect Rainaldo). The most famous part of the complex is the famous Leaning Tower of Pisa. Some researchers suggest that the tower tilted as a result of subsidence of the foundation at the very beginning of work, and then it was decided to leave it inclined. In the Cathedral of Santa Maria Nuova (1174-1189) one can feel a strong influence not only of Byzantium and the East, but also of Western architecture.

Romanesque style (IX - XII centuries)

The term "Romanesque" is rather arbitrary: (there is no connection with Rome, as, by the way, "Gothic" with the Goths). The term arose in the 19th century as a designation of the European style of the 9th - 12th centuries. The Romanesque style developed in the countries of Central and Western Europe and spread everywhere. Most "classically" this style will spread in the art of Germany and France. The leading role in the art of this period belonged to architecture. This medieval architecture was created for the needs of the church and chivalry, and churches, monasteries, castles become the leading types of structures. The monasteries were the strongest feudal lords. The spirit of militancy and the constant need for self-defense pervades Romanesque art. Castle-fortress or temple-fortress. "The castle is the fortress of the knight, the church is the fortress of God; God was thought of as the highest feudal lord, just, but merciless, carrying not the world, but the sword. A stone building towering on a hill with watchtowers, alert and threatening with large-headed, large-armed statues, as if grown to the body of the temple and silently guarding it from enemies - this is the characteristic creation of Romanesque art.

It feels great inner strength, its artistic concept is simple and strict. "The development of Romanesque art received a special impetus during the reign of the Frankish Merovingian dynasty (486-751).

A well-known historian, A. Toynbee, noted that "the only possible integral state was the Roman Empire, the Frankish regime of the Merovingians was facing the Roman past."

On the territory of Europe, architectural monuments of the ancient Romans remained in abundance: roads, aqueducts *, fortress walls, towers, temples. They were so durable that they continued to be used for their intended purpose for a long time. In the combination of watchtowers, military camps with Greek basilicas * and Byzantine ornamentation, a new "Roman" Romanesque architectural style arose: * simple and expedient. Strict tectonicity * and functionality almost completely excluded the pictorial, festive and elegant features that distinguished the architecture of Greek antiquity.

The ornamentation of Romanesque art was borrowed mainly from the East, it was based on the ultimate generalization, "geometrization and schematization of the pictorial image. Simplicity, power, strength, clarity were felt in everything. Romanesque architecture is a typical example of rational artistic thinking."

Basilica * - the main type of Western European Christian church. With the disappearance of the rationalistic foundations of the ancient worldview, the order system loses its significance, although the name of the new style comes from the word "romus" - Roman, since the Roman semicircular arched cell is the basis of the architectural structure here.

However, instead of the tectonics * of the order in Romanesque architecture, the tectonics of a powerful wall becomes the main one - the most important constructive and artistic and expressive means. This architecture is based on the principle of connecting separate closed and independent volumes, subordinate, but also clearly demarcated, each of which is a small fortress itself. These are structures with heavy vaults, heavy towers cut through by narrow loophole windows, and massive ledges of hewn stone walls. They vividly capture the idea of self-defense and impregnable power, which is quite understandable in the period of feudal fragmentation of the principalities of Europe, the isolation of economic life, the absence of trade and economic and cultural ties, in times of continuous feudal strife and wars.

Romanesque buildings were mostly covered with tiles, known to the Romans, and convenient in areas with a rainy climate. The thickness and strength of the walls were the main criteria for the beauty of the building. Severe masonry of hewn stones created a somewhat "gloomy" image, but was decorated with interspersed bricks or small stones of a different color. The windows were not glazed, but climbed with carved stone bars, the window openings were small and rose high above the ground, so the rooms in the building were very dark. Stone carvings adorned the outer walls of the cathedrals. It consisted of floral ornaments, images of fabulous monsters, exotic animals, animals, birds - motifs also brought from the East. The walls of the cathedral inside were completely covered with murals, which, however, almost did not survive to our time. Marble inlay mosaics were also used to decorate apses * and altars *, the technique of which has been preserved since antiquity.

V. Vlasov writes that Romanesque art "is characterized by the absence of any specific program in the placement of decorative motifs: geometric, "animal", biblical - they are interspersed in the most bizarre way. Sphinxes, centaurs, griffins, lions and harpies coexist peacefully side by side Most experts believe that all this phantasmagoric fauna is devoid of the symbolic meaning that is often attributed to them, and is predominantly decorative.

The art of sculpture and painting was associated with the art of book miniatures, which flourished in the Roman era.

V. Vlasov believes that it is wrong to consider Romanesque art as a "purely Western style." Connoisseurs such as E. Viollet-le-Duc saw strong Asian, Byzantine and Persian influences in Romanesque art. The very formulation of the question "West or East" in relation to the Roman era is incorrect. In the preparation of the pan-European medieval art, the beginning of which was the early Christian, the continuation - the Romanesque and the highest take-off - Gothic art, the main role was played by the Greco-Celtic origins, Romanesque, Byzantine, Greek, Persian and Slavic elements. "The development of Romanesque art received new impulses during the reign Charlemagne (768-814) and in connection with the founding of the Holy Roman Empire in 962 by Otto I (936-973).

Architects, painters, sculptors revived the traditions of the ancient Romans, receiving education in monasteries, where the traditions of ancient culture were carefully preserved for centuries.

Artistic craftsmanship developed intensively in cities and monasteries. Vessels, lampadas, stained-glass windows * were made from glass - colored and colorless, the geometric pattern of which was created by lead lintels, but stained glass art flourished later, in the era of the Gothic style.

Ivory carving was popular; this technique was used to make caskets, caskets, salaries for handwritten books. The technique of champlevé enamel on copper and gold was developed.

Romanesque art is characterized by the widespread use of iron and bronze, from which lattices, fences, locks, figured hinges, etc. were made. Doors with reliefs were cast and minted from bronze. * Extremely simple furniture was decorated with carvings of geometric shapes: round rosettes, semicircular arches, the furniture was painted with bright colors. The motif of the semicircular arch is typical of Romanesque art; in the Gothic era it will be replaced by a pointed, lancet shape.

From the 11th century production of woven carpets - tapestries begins. Ornamentation of fabrics is associated with oriental influences from the era of the Crusades.

Monasteries and churches remained the cultural centers of this era. Religious architecture embodied the Christian religious idea. The temple, which had the shape of a cross in plan, symbolized the path of the cross of Christ - the path of suffering and redemption. Each part of the building was assigned a special meaning, for example, the pillars and columns supporting the vault symbolized the apostles and prophets - the pillar of Christian teaching.

Gradually, the service became more and more magnificent and solemn. Architects over time changed the design of the temple: they began to increase the eastern part of the temple, in which the altar was located. In the apse * - the altar ledge - there was usually an image of Christ or the Mother of God, images of angels, apostles, saints were placed below. On the western wall were scenes of the Last Judgment. The lower part of the wall was usually decorated with ornaments.

In the Romanesque period, monumental sculpture first appeared - reliefs * - they were located, as a rule, on portals * (architecturally designed entrances) of churches. The size of churches increased, which led to the creation of new designs of vaults and supports.

Cylindrical (having the shape of a half-cylinder) and cross (two half-cylinders crossing at right angles) vaults, massive thick walls, large supports, an abundance of smooth surfaces, and sculptural ornament are characteristic features of the Romanesque church.

Romanesque art was most consistently formed in France - in Burgundy, Auvergne, Provence and Normandy.

The Church of St. Peter and St. Paul in the monastery of Cluny (1088-1131) is a typical example of French Romanesque architecture. Small fragments of this building have been preserved. This monastery was called the "second Rome". It was the largest church in Europe. The length of the temple was one hundred twenty-seven meters, the height of the central nave was over thirty meters. Five towers crowned the temple. To maintain such a majestic shape and size of the building, special supports are introduced at the outer walls - buttresses.

Norman temples are also devoid of decor, but, unlike the Burgundian ones, the transept * in them is single-aisled. They have well-lit naves and high towers, and their general appearance resembles fortresses rather than churches.

In the architecture of Germany at that time, a special type of church developed - majestic and massive. Such is the cathedral in Speyer (1030 - between 1092 and 1106), one of the largest in Western Europe, a vivid symbol of the Ottonian Empire.

Feudalism took shape in Germany later than in France; its development was longer and more profound. The same can be said about the art of Germany. In the first fortress-like Romanesque cathedrals, with smooth walls and narrow windows, with squat conically completed towers at the corners of the western facade and apses * both on the east and west sides, they had a severe, impregnable appearance. Only arcade belts * under the cornices adorned smooth facades and towers (Worms Cathedral, 1181-1234). Worms Cathedral is a powerful dominant of the longitudinal hull, likening the temple to a ship. The side naves are lower than the central one, the transept * crosses the longitudinal building, above the crossroads * - a massive tower, from the east the temple is closed by a semicircle of the apse. * There is nothing superfluous, destructive, veiling the architectonic logic.

The architectural decor is very restrained - just arcades * emphasizing the main lines.

But, "having entered the Romanesque temple, we open the world of strange, exciting images, in front of us, as if the sheets of a stone book, depicting the soul of the Middle Ages."

Romanesque art is often called "animal style". "The Roman God is not the Almighty hovering over the world, but a judge and protector. He is active; he severely judges his vassals, but also protects them, he tramples monsters underfoot and establishes the law of justice in the world of lawlessness and arbitrariness. All this in an era of fragmentation, continuous bloody strife.

Romanesque art seems rough and wild when compared with the sophistication of the Byzantines, but this is a style of great nobility. "The statues of Chartres Cathedral are mature, beautiful images, bordering already on the Gothic.

Romanesque churches are similar to the churches of the Ottonian period, i.e. early Romanesque, but have a constructive difference - cross vaults. *

Sculpture in the Romanesque period in Germany was placed inside temples. On the facades, it is found only at the end of the 12th century. Basically, these are painted wooden crucifixes, decorations of lamps, fonts, tombstones. Images seem detached from earthly existence, they are conditional, generalized.

In the Romanesque period, the book miniature developed rapidly. * The favorite images in the manuscripts of the 10th - 11th centuries were images of the ruler on the throne, surrounded by symbols of power ("Gospel of Otto III", about 1000, Munich Library).

Romanesque art in Italy developed differently. It always feels an “unbreakable” connection with Ancient Rome even in the Middle Ages. Since the main force of historical development in Italy were cities, not churches, secular tendencies are more pronounced in its culture than in other nations. The connection with antiquity was expressed not only in copying ancient forms, it was in a strong inner relationship with the images of ancient art. Hence "a sense of proportion and proportion to a person in Italian architecture, naturalness and vitality, combined with the nobility and grandeur of beauty in Italian plastic and painting."

In the English architecture of the Romanesque period, there is much in common with French architecture: large sizes, high central naves, * an abundance of towers. The conquest of England by the Normans in 1066 strengthened its ties with the continent, which influenced the formation of the Romanesque style in the country. Examples of this are the cathedrals in St. Albans (1077-1090), Peterborough (late 12th century) and others.

From the twelfth century in English churches, rib vaults appear, which, it is true, still have a purely decorative value. The large number of clergy involved in English worship also brings to life specific English features: an increase in the length of the interior of the temple and a shift of the transept * to the middle, which led to an accentuation of the tower of the crossroads, * always larger than the towers of the western facade. Most of the Romanesque English temples were rebuilt during the Gothic period, and therefore it is extremely difficult to judge their early appearance.

Romanesque art in Spain developed under the influence of Arabic and French culture. XI-XII centuries for Spain, it was the time of the Reconquista - a time of civil strife, fierce religious battles. The harsh fortress character of Spanish architecture was formed in the conditions of incessant wars with the Arabs, the Reconquista - the war for the liberation of the country's territory, captured in 711-718. The war left a strong imprint on all the art of Spain at that time, first of all it was reflected in architecture.

As in no other country in Western Europe, the construction of castles-fortresses began in Spain. One of the earliest castles of the Romanesque period is the Alcazar Royal Palace (9th century, Segovia). It has survived to our time. The palace stands on a high rock, surrounded by thick walls with many towers. At that time, cities were built in this way.

In the cult buildings of Spain of the Romanesque period, sculptural decorations are almost absent. Temples have the appearance of impregnable fortresses. An important role was played by monumental painting - frescoes: the paintings were made in bright colors with a clear outline pattern. The images were very expressive. Sculpture appeared in Spain in the 11th century. These were decorations of capitals, * columns, doors.

The 12th century is the "golden" age of Romanesque art, which spread throughout Europe. But many artistic solutions of the new, Gothic era were already born in it. Northern France was the first to take this path.

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