Instrumental case in Latin. Basic rules of the Latin language. Declension in Latin. Brief description of Latin grammar
The Latin language, despite the fact that it is dead, is still of great interest in various fields of human activity, including for linguists.
About Latin
Latin belongs to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Despite the fact that Latin is a dead language, interest in its history and study does not fade in our time.
The languages of the Italic branch included Faliscan, Oscan, Umbrian and Latin, but over time the latter supplanted the rest. The people who spoke Latin were called Latins, and their region of residence was called Latium. Its center in 753 BC. e. was Rome. Therefore, the Latins called themselves Romans, the founders of the great Roman Empire and its culture, which later had an impact on all spheres of life in Europe and the world.
Grammar Feature
All parts of speech in Latin are divided into changeable and unchangeable. Variables include noun, adjective, verb, participle, pronoun, gerund, gerund. Invariables include adverbs, particles, conjunctions and prepositions. For inflected parts of speech, there is a declension system in Latin.
Invariable parts of speech
The invariable parts of speech are conjunction, particle, preposition and interjection.
Inflected parts of speech
The inflected parts of speech are declined by gender, number, and case, and conjugated by person, number, tense, voice, and mood.
Language learners should know that Latin has three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), two numbers (singular and plural), six cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, and vocative) and five declensions.
Let's take a closer look at the declension system in Latin. Declension changes the form of the word, that is, the ending changes.
Cases and declension
What is interesting about the declension system in Latin? There are five declension forms for nouns, and three for adjectives.
The first declension includes nouns and adjectives. female having the ending -a in the nominative and the ending -ae in the genitive. For example, agua - aguae (water).
The second declension includes masculine nouns and adjectives with the ending -us and the neuter with -um in the nominative case and the ending -i in the genitive. For example, albus-albi (white), oleum-olei (oil).
The third declension includes nouns and adjectives, the endings of which are not listed above, not below. This is the largest group of words, as it includes nouns and adjectives of all three genders.
So, in the nominative case of the ending in the words y:
- masculine - -er, -os. oe, or.
- feminine - -x, -io, -is;
- neuter --ur, -n, -ma, -i, -c, -e.
In the genitive case they all end in -ips, -icis, -tis, -cis, -inis, -is, -eris, -oris, onis.
The fourth declension includes masculine nouns that end in -us and do not change in the genitive case. For example, spiritus (spirit).
The fifth declension includes feminine nouns ending in -es in the nominative case and ending in -ei in the genitive. For example, species-speciei (collection).
The adjective, pronoun and noun in Latin change in 6 cases:
- nominative (who? what?) - in the sentence takes the role of the subject or nominal part of the predicate;
- genitive (whom? what?) - in the sentence is an inconsistent definition, addition or logical subject;
- dative (to whom? What?) - in the sentence it takes the role of an indirect object, an object or a person contributing to the action;
- accusative (whom? what?) - in the sentence is an object;
- instrumental and prepositional (by whom? by what?) - in the sentence they take on the role of circumstance;
- vocative - does not have a question, does not take on the role of any member of the sentence in the sentence.
Conjugation and tenses
The verb in Latin has the following characteristics:
- The mood is imperative, subjunctive and conditional.
- Time - past, past (perfect and imperfect types), present, future and future.
- Voice - real (active) and passive (passive).
- Number is singular and plural.
- Face - first, second and third.
- Conjugation, determined by the final sound of the stem. There are 4 conjugations in total - I - -ā, II - -ē, III - -ĭ, -ŭ, consonant, IV - -ī. The exception is the verbs esse, velle, ferre, edere, nolle, which have their own conjugation features.
The past tense tells about an event that happened before an action that happened in the past. For example, Graeci loco, quo hostem superaverant, trophaea statuebant. - The Greeks erected trophies (monuments) in the place where they defeated the enemy.
The future tense tells about an event that will happen earlier than the one that the person is talking about. For example, Veniam, quōcumque vocāveris. - I'll go wherever you call me.
When determining the conjugation of a verb, the infinitive form in the present tense of the active voice is used, having the ending -re and the letter that comes before the indicated ending determines the conjugation of the verb. For example, laborare refers to the first conjugation because the -re is preceded by the letter a.
numeral
The numeral in Latin can be ordinal, quantitative, dividing and adverbial. The endings of ordinal chimes are the same as those of adjectives and agree with nouns in gender, numbers and cases.
The Latin language has its own system of numbers, which are denoted by letters of the alphabet.
Pronouns
In Latin, pronouns are divided into:
- personal;
- returnable;
- possessive;
- index;
- relative;
- interrogative;
- indefinite;
- negative;
- defining;
- pronoun adjectives.
Adverbs
Adverbs in Latin are divided into independent and derivatives and show the features of a process or action.
Latin in medicine
Latin is required for study at any medical university, as it is the basic language of medicine throughout the world. Why? The fact is that in Greece, before the conquest by the Romans, there was a developed medical system with its own terminology, the basis of which was laid by Hippocrates. These terms have survived unchanged to our time. The words derma, gaster, bronchus, dispnoe, diabetes are familiar to any Greek person. But over time, there was a latinization of medical terminology and today it is pure Latin, but a mixture with Greek. There are several objective reasons why Latin is not losing ground:
GRAMMATIC CATEGORIES OF NOUNS In Latin, a noun has:
three kinds:
Masulīnum m, (masculine)
Femininum
f, (feminine)
n (neuter)
Neutrum
two numbers:;
singularis (singular),
pluralis (plural);
5 cases:
5 CASES:nominatīvus (N.) (nominative)
genetivus (G.) (genitive)
datīvus (D.) (dative)
accusatīvus (Acc.) (accusative)
ablatīvus (Abl.) (creative)
Gives everything you need about him.
information.
In the dictionary, the noun is given in
following order:
On
first place, full form
nominatīvus singularis (nominative
singular case).
In second place, always after the comma
lead the ending, the last syllables
or the full form genetīvus singularis
(genitive singular
numbers).
In third place, last
a brief designation of the genus is given.
medical
DICTIONARY FORM OF THE NOUN
INimportant in latin
find the right base.
She is in shape
genitive case by
discarding the ending.
Nom. Tincture; ae; f
Gen. Tinctur-ae
General rule definition of gender
GENERAL RULE DEFINITIONKIND
The genus is determined by the end
genitive noun,
singular.
M.r. –us(er), oculus- eye
Zh.r.- a,
gutta - drop
Wed-um(en), oleum-oil
In Latin, the nouns of this or
a different kind, do not coincide with the kind of Russian
language
muscle - musculus
Zh.r.
M.r.
TYPES OF DECLINE
INLatin language 5 types
declination.
Declension of nouns
practically determined by
ending genetivus singularis
(genitive case
singular).
Genitive form y
each declension is individual
1st Declension of Nouns
TOthe first declension is
nouns in the nominative
case, singular,
feminine gender ending in a.
(Tinctura)
Genitive singular
number ends ae.(Tincturae)
Decline occurs through
adding case endings to
basis.
Table of case endings of the first declension
TABLE OF CASE ENDINGSFIRST DECLINE
Singular
Cases
Plural
Nom.
Tinctura
Tincturae
Gen.
Tincturae
Tincturarum
Dat.
Tincturae
Tincturis
acc.
Tincturam
Tincturas
Abl.
Tinctura
Tincturis
f
f
10. 2nd declension of nouns
Co.second declension are
case, singular
masculine endings us(er) and neuter having
endings -um(en).
masculine is the same -i.
Musculi-m Decocti-n
11. Exception to the rules about the gender of the second declension
EXCEPTION FROM THE RULES ON GENDERSECOND DECLINE
1) Bolus, i, f, - clay
2) Nouns with
ending us denoting
the meaning of trees and
shrubs regardless of
inclinations are always
female.
Crataegus, i, f.
Sorbus, i, f.
12. Table of case endings of the second declension
TABLE OF CASE ENDINGSSECOND DECLINE
Pade
zhi
Singular
m
n
Plural
m
n
Nom.
muscle
Decoctum Musculi
Gen.
Musculi
Decocti
Musculorum Decoctorum
Dat.
muscle
Decocto
muscle
Decoctis
acc.
muscle
Decoctum Musculos
Decoctos
Abl.
muscle
Decocto
Decoctis
muscle
Decocta
13. 3rd declension of nouns
Third declension nouns can be m.p.,zh.r., cf. with different endings. In the genitive
case, singular have the ending -is
M.r.
o-homo
or-higuor
os-flos
er-aether
Es-pes
ex-cortex
Zh.r.
as sanitas
is-auris
ax-borax
ux-nux
ix-radix
rs-pars
io-solutio
Wed
en-semen
ur-sulfur
ut-caput
ma-rhizoma
l-mel
c-lac
al-animal
14. Nouns of the 3rd declension are
3RD NOUNSDECLINES HAPPEN
Equals
complex (those in which the number
syllables in the genitive case is equal to the number
syllables in the nominative singular
numbers)
Nom. Cutis
Gen. Cutis
Not equally complex (such
nouns that have the number of syllables in
genitive singular case
more than the number of syllables in the nominative
singular.
Nom. corpus
Gen. cor-po-ris
15. DICTIONARY FORM OF NOUNS 3rd declension
DICTIONARY FORMEqually complex
nouns 3- his
declension:
In the first place is
noun in genitive
case of the singular.
Second place ending
genitive case.
In third place is the genus.
Auris, is, f.
16. DICTIONARY FORM OF NOUNS 3rd declension
DICTIONARY FORMNouns of the 3rd Declension
Do not equal complex
nouns:
In the first place is
noun in
genitive case
singular.
In second place is given
genitive ending
case together with the end of the stem
Apicis, isci, m.
17. DICTIONARY FORM OF NOUNS 3rd declension
DICTIONARY FORMNouns of the 3rd Declension
Monosyllabic:
In the first place is
noun in
genitive case
singular.
In second place is
noun in full.
Flos, floris, m.
18. Table of case endings of the third declension
TABLE OF CASE ENDINGS OF THE THIRDdeclension
Cases Singular Plural
n
Different
semen
m,f
n
Nom.
m,f
Different
Solutio
Solutions
Semina
Gen.
solutionis
Seminis
solutionum
Seminum
Dat.
Solutioni
Semini
Solutionibus Seminibus
acc.
Solutionem=Nom
semen
Solutions
Abl.
solution
Solutionibus Seminibus
Semine
Semina
19. 4th declension of nouns
TOfourth declension are
nominative nouns
case, singular
male having endings - us and
neuter having endings -u.
Fructus, us, m
Cornu, us, n
In the genitive ending
singular middle and
masculine same - us
20. DICTIONARY FORM OF NOUNS 4th declension
DICTIONARY FORMNOUNS 4th
declension
On
is in the first place
noun in
nominative case
singular.
Second place ending
genitive case.
In third place with a letter
genus is indicated.
21. Table of case endings of the fourth declension
TABLE OF CASE ENDINGS OF THE FOURTHdeclension
Cases
Singular
plural
number
m
n
m
n
Nom.
Fructus
Cornu
Fructus
Gen.
Fructus
Cornus
Fructuum Cornuum
acc.
Fructum
Cornu
Fructus
Abl.
Fruit
Cornu
Fructibus Cornibus
Cornua
Cornua
22. 5th declension of nouns
TOfirst declension
nouns belong to
nominative case,
singular, feminine
genders ending in -s
Genitive
singular has
ending -ei
Facies, ei,
f.
23. DICTIONARY FORM OF NOUNS of the 5th declension
DICTIONARY FORMNOUNS
5th
declension
On
is in the first place
noun in
nominative case
singular.
Second place ending
genitive case.
In third place with a letter
genus is indicated.
24. Table of case endings of the fifth declension
TABLE OF CASE ENDINGSFIFTH DECLINE
Cases Singular Plural
number
number
Nom
f
Facies
f
Facies
Gen
Faciei
Facierum
acc
Faciem
Facies
Abl
Facie
There are six cases in Latin:
Nominativus nominative who? What?
Genetivus parent of whom? what?
Dativus dative to whom? what?
Accusativus accusatory whom? What?
Ablativus postponement by whom? how? about whom? about what?
Vocativus vocative
For a correct understanding of most anatomical terms (and the terms of other sections of medical terminology), it is enough to know only the forms of the first two cases, singular and plural, which we will later limit ourselves to:
Nominative case - the case of a name, title, is considered the initial form of nouns and adjectives. In anatomical and histological terms, nouns in the nominative case are written in the first place.
The system of changing words by numbers and cases is called declension. In Latin, there are five types of word changes according to numbers and cases, or five declensions.
The declension of Latin nouns is usually determined by the end of the genitive case of the singular - Gen. sing., since only in this case does each declension have a characteristic ending. In other cases, depending on the gender and nature of the basis of nouns, the endings may coincide or have several options ( see summary table of case endings).
Noun Declension Table
The end of Gen.sing. | |||||
declination |
Ending Gen. sing. (genitive singular) is always written next to nouns in the dictionary.
Dictionary form of nouns
The dictionary form of nouns is the following entry: costa, ae f edge; musclelus, i m muscle; sternum, i n sternum; margo, ĭnis m edge; arcus,us m arc; facies, ei f face, surface; where the whole word written at the beginning is the form of the nominative case of the singular, through the occupied - the ending of the genitive case of the singular, and the letter denotes the gender of this noun. For some nouns (usually the 3rd declension), in the genitive case, not only the case ending is recorded, but also part of the stem, to indicate cases when alternations of vowels or consonants are observed in the stem of the word. For example: corpus, ŏris n body; forāmen, ĭnis n hole; apex, ĭcis m tip. If a word in the nominative case has only one syllable, the genitive form is written in full: os, ossis n bone; os, oris n mouth; dens, dentis m tooth; pars, partis f Part. Therefore, when memorizing Latin nouns, it is necessary to memorize not only the initial form, but also the form of the genitive case, and what kind of word is given: costa, costae, feminī num; forāmen, foraminis, neutrum; margo, marginis, maskī num.
Nom . sing . | Ending Gen . sing | nouns | |
edge |
|||
muscle |
|||
sternum |
|||
edge |
|||
arc |
|||
face, surface |
|||
bone |
|||
Part |
When memorizing Latin nouns, it is imperative to remember all the elements of the dictionary form. Thus, the forms of the first two cases, which are most common in anatomical terms, we will know only on the basis of knowledge of the dictionary form of the noun.
Greek nouns in anatomical nomenclature
In anatomical terminology, Greek nouns that have passed into Latin can be found, which are divided into three declensions. Division is based on the same principle as that of Latin nouns: the ending of the genitive case of the singular. When declining, Greek words mostly take on Latin endings, but in some cases they retain the old Greek ones: Aloе, es f aloe ( medicinal plant ) ; raphe, es f the seam; diabetes, ae m diabetes; ascites, ae m dropsy of the abdominal cavity. Such words will be considered within the framework of Latin declensions.
To consolidate new material:
Determine declination nouns : vertĕbra, ae f; corpus, ŏris n; dorsum, i n; arcus, usm; superficies, ēi f; basis, is f; collum, in; apex, ĭcis m; cranium, ii n; ductus, usm; caput, itis n; ganglion, ii n; cornu, us n; squama, ae f; facies, ēi f; zygōma, ătis n; processus, usm; tubercŭlum, i n; thorax, ācism; tractus, us m; atlas, antism; axis, ism; dorsum, i n; genu, us n.
§9. Structure of anatomical terms.
Inconsistent definition
1) Anatomical terms can consist of one word. We will call them single-word - vertěbra vertebra; costa edge; cerebrum brain etc . You need to know that some one-word Latin names are translated into Russian not by one Russian word, but by two. For example: thorax (in Greek shell) - rib cage; fibula (in Latin a clothes pin that looks like a bone) - fibula; tibia (in Latin pipe, which in ancient times was made from such bones) - tibia, etc.
2) Two-word terms consist of two words: corpus vertěbrae body of (what?) vertebra; vertebra cervicalis vertebra (what?) cervical etc. In two-word terms, the first word is always a noun in the nominative case - Nom. sing. The second word defines, characterizes the first, it is called definition. A definition expressed by a noun in the genitive case is called an inconsistent definition.
3) Multi-word terms consist of several nouns and adjectives: facies articularis tubercŭli costae articular surface of the tubercle of the rib. In the Latin term, the noun in the nominative case comes first, although in Russian we call the adjective first.
§10. Sequence of actions when translating into Latin
terms with an unspoken definition
Any anatomical term in Latin begins with a noun in the nominative case, singular or plural. The following are words that explain this noun. These can be adjectives (agreeing definition) or nouns in the genitive case (inconsistent definition).
The most simple design- "noun nominative + noun genitive". Let's denote them C 1 and C 2 . Both in Russian and in Latin, the words are arranged in the same sequence "C 1 + C 2".
Consider, for example, the translation of the term rib arc .
First of all, you need to remember the dictionary form of each word included in the term:
arc - arcus, us m;
rib - costa, ae f
Then you need to determine in which case each word in Russian is used in this term, and write out the Latin word in the same case:
Let's connect the Latin forms according to the scheme " C 1 + C 2"And we will end up with a Latin term arcus costae .
An anatomical term can include several words in the genitive case: surface of the tubercle of the rib . The scheme of this term is "C 1 + C 2 + C 2".
Dictionary form of all words:
surface - facies, ēi f;
tubercle - tubercŭlum, i n;
rib - costa, ae f.
in Russian | grammatical characteristic | in latin |
|
surface | eminent. case singular numbers - Nom. sing. | ||
genitive singular. numbers - Gen.sing. |
Latin translation: facies tuberculi costae.
Lexical minimum
ala, ae f wing
arcus,us m arc
arteria, ae f artery
atlas, atlantis m first cervical vertebra, atlas
axis, ism second cervical vertebra, axis
caput, itis n head, head
collum, i n neck, neck
corpus, ŏris n body
costa, ae f edge
crista, ae f crest
facies, ēi f face, surface
forāmen, ĭnis n hole
fossa, ae f hole, recess
fovea, ae f pit, hole
incisura, ae f tenderloin
lamina, ae f platea
os, ossis n bone
processus, us m offshoot
scapŭla, ae f scapula
sulcus, i m furrow
thorax, acis m rib cage
tubercŭlum, i n tubercle
vena, ae f vein
vertebra, ae f vertebra
Exercises
Determine the declension of nouns:
fovea, ae f; dorsum, i n; arcus, usm; collum, in; cranium, in; ductus, usm; cornu, us n; facies, ēi f; zygōma, ătis n; musculus, im; processus, usm; atlas, antism; axis, ism; genu, us n; tuberosĭtas, ātis f; ala, ae f; plexus, usm; ramus, im; tubercŭlum, i n; incisura, ae f; forāmen, ĭnis n; sulcus, im; fossa, ae f; crista, ae f; dens, dentis m; apex, ĭcis m; os, ossis n; cavitas, ātis f; angŭlus, im; costa, ae f.
Rewrite, insert instead of the missing letters the ending of the genitive case of the singular. Underline the nouns that change the stem:
tubercŭlum, tubercŭl… (II declension); nervus, nerv… (II); caput, capit… (III); arcus, arc… (IV); atlas, atlant… (III); forāmen, foramĭn… (III); costa, cost… (I); crista, crist… (I); collum, coll… (II); arteria, arteri… (I); os, oss… (III); vertebra, vertebr... (I); hiātus, hiāt… (IV); os, or… (III); basis, bas… (III); facies, faci… (V); margo, margĭn… (III); tympănum, tympăn… (II); apex, apĭc… (III); processus, process… (IV); canalis, canal… (III); meātus, meāt… (IV); corpus, corpŏr… (III); pars, part… (III).
Translate the following phrases into Russian:
arcus vertebrae; caput costae; collum scapulae; collum mandibulae; collum costae; corpus costae; foramen vertebrae; tuberculum costae; sulcus venae; incisura scapulae; facies tuberculi costae.
Translate the following phrases into Latin:
vertebral arch; plate of the vertebral arch; arch of the first cervical vertebra; rib body; rib head; rib head crest; rib wing; rib neck; tubercle crest; rib tubercle; sulcus of the artery; rib neck crest; wing of a rooster's comb (rooster - gallus, i m).
5. Read Latin proverbs and winged expressions, stress, remember by heart.
1. Non ad vanam captandam gloriam, non sordĭdi lucri causa, sed quo magis vertas propagētur. Not to achieve empty glory, not for vile self-interest, but so that the truth spreads more (from the Hippocratic oath). 2.Non enim tam praeclārum est scīre Latīne, quam turpe nescīre. It is not so commendable to know Latin, how shameful it is not to know it.. 3. Non scholae, sed vitae discĭmus. Not for school, but for life, we learn. 4. Scientia est potentia. Knowledge is power.
Exercises for verification and test reading
Ostemporā le. Processus zygomatĭcus; tubercŭlum articulare; fissūra petrosquamōsa; fissūra petrotympanĭca; pars tympanĭca; porus acusticus externus; fissura tympanomastoidea; spina suprameatica; sulcus nervi petrōsi minris; sulcus nervi petrōsi majōris; hiatus canalis nervi petrōsi; eminentia arcuata; sulcus sinus sigmoidei; impressio nervi trigemni; apex partis pertōsae; margo sphenoidalis; tegmen tympani; apertūra externa aquaeductus vestibŭli; apertūra externa canalicŭli cochleae; meātus acustĭcus externus; fissūra tympanosquamōsa; tubercŭlum articulare; fossŭla petrōsa; forāmen stylomastoideum; cavum tympani; promontory; fenestra vestibuli; fenestra cochleae; vagīna processus styloīdei; canalis carotcus; prominentia canalis semicircularis lateralis; genicŭlum canalis facialis; semicanalis musculi tensoris tympani; semicanalis tubae auditvae; cellŭlae tympanĭcae; canaliclus chordae tympani.
Osethmoidā le. Lamina perpendicularis; concha nasālis media; crista galli; labyrinthus ethmoidalis; lamĭna cribrōsa; ala cristae galli; forāmen caecum; concha nasālis superior; meatus nasi superior; processus uncinatus; bulla ethmoidalis.
Maxilla. Corpus maxillae; margo infraorbitalis; facies anterior; juga alveolaria; fossa canina; incisūra nasālis; spina nasalis anterior; sulcus infraorbitalis; facies infratemporalis; tuber maxillae; canalis incisivus; forāmen incisīvum; foramina alveolaria; canales alveolares; hiatus maxillaris; alveli dentales; os incisivum; sutūra palatīna mediana; septa interradicularia; processus sphenoidalis; processus pyramidalis; lamina horizontalis; incisura sphenopalatina; fossa pterygoidea; ala vomeris; fossa sacci lacrimalis; hiatus lacrimalis; processus temporalis; forāmen zygomaticotemporāle.
Mandibŭ la. Basis mandibulae; processus coronoideus; processus condylaris; tuberositas masseterca; sulcus mylohyoideus; septa interalveolaria; linea obliqua; protuberantia mentalalis; lingŭla mandibŭlae; fossa digastrica; fovea sublingualis; os hyoideum; cornu majus; cornua majōra; cornu minus; cornua minra.
Cranium. Calvaria; basis; crista frontalis; foveŏlae granulares; sella turcĭca; forāmen jugulare; canalis hypoglossus; synchondrosis sphenooccipitalis; vomer; lamĭna horizontalis ossis palatīni; orbitta; processus pyramidalis ossis palatini; palatum durum; choana; cóndylus occipitalis; tubercŭlum pharyngēum; canalis condylaris; forāmen lacerum; fissūra tympanosquamōsa; sutura sphenosquamsa; forāmen palatīnum minus; clivus; eminentia cruciformis; orbitta; adĭtus orbitae; canalis nasolacrimalis; fossa sacci lacrimalis; os sphenoidale; forāmen ethmoidāle posterius; meātus nasi communis; apertūra piriformis; recessus sphenoethmoidalis; infundibŭlum ethmoidale; hiatus semilunaris; lamĭna laterālis processus pterygoidei; processus palatinus maxillae; os lacrimalis; fonticulus anterior; anŭlus tympanĭcus; squama occipitalis.
§eleven. Adjective
The Latin adjective has the same grammatical categories as the noun - gender, number, case. But the adjective declines only in the first three declensions.
The dictionary form of adjectives represents the following entry: the nominative case of the masculine singular is given in full, then the feminine and neuter endings are indicated separated by a comma. For example: longus, a, um long, -th, -th; liber, ĕra, ĕrum free,-oh, -oh; dexter, tra, trum right,-oh, -oh; articularis, e articular, -th, -th; costalis, e costal, th, th. Depending on generic endings in Nom.sing. adjectives in Latin are divided into two groups.
TO first group include adjectives that in Nom. sing. in the masculine gender have an ending - us, or - er, in the feminine - A, average -- um: profundus, a, um deep, th, th; sinister, tra, trum left, -th, -th.
The rest of the adjectives refer to second group. In most cases, Nom. sing. they have a common form for masculine and feminine with the ending - is, and ending - e neuter: laterālis, e lateral, -th, -th; dorsalis, e rear, -th, -th,dorsal, -th, -th; costalis, e costal,-oh, -oh (see §20 for details). Mixing of generic endings of the first and second groups is excluded. If you come across an adjective with an ending - us, then this is a masculine form, and the corresponding feminine and neuter forms of this adjective will have endings - a, -um; and if the masculine form has an ending - is, then f.r. -- is; cf. - - e.
The second group of adjectives is joined by several words that are actively involved in anatomical term formation. These are forms comparative degree Latin adjectives: anterior, ius front, -ya, -her; posterior, ius rear, -ya, -her; superior, ius upperAndth-ya, -her; inferior, ius lower, -ya, -ee; major, jus big, -th, -th; minor, us small, th, th. They have in Nom. sing. a common masculine and feminine form ending in -ior(jor), the neuter gender ending in -ius(jus).
The declension of adjectives is determined according to the dictionary form as follows: adjectives of the first group of feminine gender with the ending - A belong to the I declension; masculine adjectives in - us, -er and neuter on- um belong to the II declension; adjectives of the second group and the comparative degree of adjectives - to the III declension.
1st group | 2nd group | comparative |
|||||||
declination | |||||||||
Adjectives agree with the nouns they define in gender, number, and case. In a phrase, the noun is put first, then the adjective: vertĕbra thoracĭca (thoracic vertebrae) Russian: thoracic vertebra. The adjective must be of the same gender as the noun, stand in the same number and case as the noun, but their declension may be different.
As an example, let's make phrases with a noun processus, usm and adjectives from the following table. The noun is masculine, therefore, as a definition for it, we choose adjectives with masculine endings from the dictionary form:
m (masculine) | f (feminine) | n (neuter) |
Us externus Us transverse Er dexter | A externa A transversa Tra dextra | um externum um transverse Trump dextrum |
Is lateralis Is dorsalis | E laterale E dorsale |
|
Ior anterior Ior posterior Ior superior Ior inferior Jor major Or minor | Ius anterius Ius posterius Ius superius Ius inferius Jus majus Us minus |
|
Processus externus (transversus); processus dexter; processus lateralis (dorsalis); processus anterior (posterior; superior; inferior); processus major; processus minor.
Next noun arteria, aef feminine and for it we choose adjectives with feminine endings:
Arteria externa (transversa); arteria dextra; arteria lateralis (dorsalis); arteria anteriorDocument
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Nulla regula sine exception.
There is no rule without exception.
Nouns in Latin are divided into five declensions depending on the final sounds of the base. In accordance with belonging to a particular declension, they take various case endings.
For those who accidentally came to the site: the Latin alphabet and reading rules are presented in the previous lesson.
First declension, -a, singularis
The first declension includes nouns and adjectives whose stem ends in - a; so it can also be called declension - a. Feminine nouns belong to it, which in nom. sing. have an ending a, in gen. sing. - ae, e.g.: schol a, schol ae - school, schools; vill a, vill ae - villa, villas. This also includes a small group of masculine nouns denoting a male profession or belonging to any nationality (the natural sign associated with the meaning of the word is decisive); e.g.: poēt a, poēt ae - poet; agricl a, agricl ae - farmer; Pers a, Pers ae - Persian.
In order to correctly determine which declension a noun belongs to, it is necessary to write it out and memorize it in two cases - nominative and genitive, for example: schola, scholae; toga, togae; Roma, Roma
We give an example of the declension of a noun with an adjective of the I declension in the singular. Pay attention to the typical Latin word order, where the adjective usually stands after noun:
| Singularis | ||
| Nom. | puell ă pulchr ă beautiful girl |
amic ă bon ă good friend |
| Gen. | puell ae pulchr ae | amic ae bon ae |
| Dat. | puell ae pulchr ae | amic ae bon ae |
| Asc. | puell am pulchr am | amic am bon am |
| Abl. | puell ā pulchr ā | amic ā bon ā |
| Voc. | puell ă pulchr ă | amic ă bon ă |
NB (nota bene! - pay attention, remember well!)
1. Ablativus has an ending -A (A long), nominatīvus and vocatīvus - -ă (a short).
2. Before you start translating sentences, you should remember that the subject is always in nominative case:
Mother praises the maid. - mater ancillam laudat.
Girl(is) at school. - Puella in school est.
In these sentences, the Russian and Latin constructions completely coincide: the subject is in the nominative case.
Now compare the following phrases:
genitive
Girls not at school.
There are many slave girls.
Puella in school non est.
Multae ancillae sunt.
Here, Latin personal constructions are replaced when translated into Russian by impersonal ones, Latin nominativus is replaced by the genitive case; literal translation: “the girl is not at school”, “there are many slaves” - does not correspond to the norms of the Russian language.
3. If the predicate in the sentence is a nominal compound, that is, it consists of the auxiliary verb esse and the nominal part expressed by a noun or adjective, then the nominal part in Latin always stands in nominative case, i.e., consistent with the subject:
Puella bona est.
Syra ancilla est.
Girl - good.
Sira - maid.
When translating, the Latin nominativus is preserved if the auxiliary verb is in the present tense: “Slave unhappy"," Tullia (there is) girlfriend Julia." If the auxiliary verb is in the past or future tense, the nominal part of the predicate is translated creative case: "Tullia was (will be) girlfriend Julia."
4. The predicate in most cases is at the end of the sentence; starting the translation, you must first find the predicate, then the subject, and only after that add the rest of the sentence to them. For example: Terentia ancillam vocat. Predicate - vocat calling; we ask: who is calling? - and looking for nominativus - Terentia: Terentia is calling. The next question is who is calling? ancillam (acc.) slave. Translation of the whole sentence: "Terence calls the slave." Note the difference in word order:
Terentia Tulliam vocat.
Terentia is calling Tullia.
Puella Syram laudat.
Girl praises Siru.
Dictionary(for translate)
puella, ae girl
Romana, ae Roman
est is, is
matrōna, ae woman, lady
mater mother
filia, ae daughter
amīca, ae girlfriend
vocat calling
tunĭca, ae tunic
nova, ae new
da give
quo Where
propĕras hurry up, go
rogat asks
silva, ae forest
in(with acc.) in
cum(with abl.) with (with whom, with what)
cum amica with a friend
propero I'm going, I'm in a hurry
respondet answers
quo propĕras Where are you going?
(in silvam propĕro I go to the forest
quo-cum propĕras who are you going with?
(cum amica propero I'm going with a friend
Tullia, Iulia, Aemilia, Terentia- the names of the Romans; Syra- name of a slave
Translate:
Tullia puella Romana est. Terentia matrōna Romana est. Terentia mater Tulliae est. Iulia, Aemiliae filia, Tulliae amīca est. Terentia Syram vocat: "Syra! Tulliae tunĭcam novam da!" "Quo propĕras, Tullia?" - Syra rogat. "In silvam cum amīcā propĕro" - respondet Tullia.
First conjugation. Base -a
Infinitivus
indefinite form
- call for
| Praesens indicativi activi Present indicative tense of the active voice |
||
| Face | Singularis | Pluralis |
| 1. | voco- i call | voca- mus - we call |
| 2. | voca- s - you call | voca- tis - you call |
| 3. | voca- t - he, she calls | voca- nt - they call |
| Imperative- imperative mood | ||
| voca! - call! | vocā-te! - call! | |
In the text, we met several verbs in various forms: propĕras - You're going; rogat- she asks; da- give. Their common feature is a vowel -A, which indicates that the verbs belong to one conjugation group, namely, to the I conjugation. The first conjugation includes verbs whose stem ends in a vowel -ā. We determine the belonging of the verb to a particular conjugation by the vowel sound that comes before the suffix indefinite form. In all four conjugations, this suffix is -re; if it is dropped, the stem of the verb remains, e.g.: vocā-re - call for; rogā-re- ask; properā-re- go, hurry.
The imperative mood has forms only in the 2nd person. In singularis, a pure stem is represented: voca! propera! roga!
Remember personal verb endings. These endings are used for all conjugations in almost all tenses:
| Singularis | Pluralis | |
| 1. 2. 3. |
-O -s -t |
-mus -tis -nt |
Latin nouns vary in number and case, and can also be masculine (genus masculinum), feminine (genus femininum), or neuter (genus neutrum). There are nouns that are indeclinable (indeclinabilia). In this case, they belong to the middle gender. These include letter names, non-Latin names (Adam - Adam, Noe - Noah) and individual words (pondo - pound; gelu - frost). There are nouns that are used only in one of the indirect cases (monoptota) (satias - satiety; frustratui - deceit; etc.). Other nouns are known only in two cases (diptota) (suppetiae, suppetias - help). There are also those that are used only in three cases (triptota) (vis, vim, vi - strength).
Nouns denoting people and animals can take on both genders - each time the one that is meant by this word (citizen, citizen - civis). This double use of the genus is called the common genus (genus commune). The names of winds, months and rivers are masculine. The names of trees, cities, countries and islands are usually feminine. The singular is called numerus singularis, the plural is numerus pluralis.
Heteroclita nouns in the singular have, for example, the feminine gender, and in the plural they have the middle (carbasus - sail), respectively, in different numbers (= genders) they decline according to different declensions. There is also the opposite situation - the neuter in the singular and the feminine in the plural (epulum - epuli - a feast). There are masculine words in the singular, but in the plural they also acquire the neuter gender (locus - place, loci - separate places, for example, excerpts from books; and loca - places related to each other, areas, areas). There are words of the neuter gender in the singular and masculine in the plural (coelum - coeli - sky). Some words change meaning depending on the number: aedes - temple (singular), house (plural); copia (singular) - abundance, copiae (plural) - army.
Some nouns are used only in the plural, for example: gray hairs (cani), weapons (arma). This category also includes the names of Roman and Greek holidays.
Similarly to Greek, all neuter names have the accusative case the same as the nominative case. In the accusative case of the plural, such names inherited from the common Indo-European language the sign of the collective concept - the ending a.
The Greek influence on Latin was also manifested in the fact that words borrowed from Greek (especially proper names) can even retain their Greek case endings when declensed. In other cases, they are declined in both variants - both with Latin and Greek endings. The reproduction of Greek forms is most often seen in poets.
As in Greek and Russian, Latin nouns can have common roots with a verb, appear as complex words with different roots or with the help of suffixes, and a little less often with the help of prefixes. This greatly enriches the vocabulary, means of expression language, allows you to convey various shades. For example, there are nouns honor - honor; honestas - respect; honestudo - respect; honestamentum - decoration; honorarium - reward; honorificentia - respectfulness; honoripeta - ambitious; Honorius - Honorius, proper name.
In the dictionary, Latin nouns are given in the nominative singular, then the ending of the genitive singular is indicated and, in short, the gender of the word (m, f, n - masculine, feminine, neuter). In this way, the type of declination can be understood. For example: animal, alis, n animal. In archaic Latin, some case endings had a different form than in classical. In particular, they were more like Greek. For example, in the dative case of the singular in Latin there was a later lost diphthong with the sound i, and in Greek the iota moved to the position of a signed letter.
The first declension refers mainly to feminine nouns.
Case endings
The vocative case, both in the singular and in the plural, has the same ending as the nominative. In the plural, such a coincidence occurs in all declensions; in the singular, in other declensions, special vocative endings appear. In the accusative case of the singular in all declensions, the last letter is m.
Nouns of the II declension are mostly masculine.
Case endings
Second declension nouns can also have the nominative singular endings -er, -ir for masculine words and -um for neuter words. As an exception, there are feminine and neuter nouns ending in –us.
The third declension is the most difficult. It includes most nouns and many adjectives. In the nominative case, nouns have different endings and come in all genders - masculine, feminine and neuter.
Case endings
In some cases, some words have endings with slight features. They are inclined according to the mixed type and according to the vowel type. The mixed type in the genitive plural has the ending -ium instead of -um. The vowel type in the genitive plural has the same ending as the mixed one, and in the prepositional singular it has the ending -i instead of -e.
TO mixed type include words in which the number of syllables in the genitive case of the singular does not change, i.e. remains the same as it was in the dictionary form - nominative singular. Such words are called equivalents. The same type includes words that have two consonants before the ending of the genitive singular.
TO vowel type include words of the middle gender, in which the dictionary form (nominative singular) ends in -e, -al, -ar. Adjectives also belong to the vowel type.
The gender of words of the III declension can be determined from the dictionary.
However, there are some rules for this, each of which has exceptions. To facilitate the memorization of these exceptions, even in the textbooks of the 19th century for classical education, special mnemonic devices were used - the exceptions were listed in the form of poems with rhyme. These rules and practices are listed below.
Words ending in -o, -or, -er, -os are usually masculine. Feminine exceptions: Feminina sunt on -o: carnis, caro, -io, -do and -go, except ordo, pugio.
There is only one word for feminine in -os - dos. Os "bone" and os "mouth" are always of the middle kind. Exceptions of the neuter: Only the word cor is important in the neuter in –or. Feminini generis only arbor, arboris. Middle gender in -er sunt: cadaver, iter, ver and pluralis - verbera.
Words ending in -es are feminine when they are equally syllables. In other cases, they are masculine. Feminine in -es: quies, merces and seges.
Words ending in -ex are masculine. Only lex should be remembered for the feminine gender in -ex. Words ending in -as, -is, -aus, -s are usually feminine. Exceptions: Masculina only as, and the average only vas.
Masculina sunt on -is all words on -cis, -quis, -nis; lapis, pullis, collis, mensis, also orbis. Masculina sunt on -ns: fons, mons, pons, and also dens.
Words ending in -e, -l, -ar are usually neuter. Masculine exceptions: Masculina - sal and sol and animals in -us - lepos, leporis and mus. Feminina is only tellus.
Words in -c, -e, -n, -t, -ur are usually neuter.
Words ending in -us are feminine when they end in -utis or -udis in the genitive singular. If in the nominative singular they end in -oris or -eris, then they are neuter.
The fourth declension includes the words male, which in the nominative case have the ending -us, and the words middle genders that have the ending -u in the nominative case.
As exceptions to the feminine the words include: domus - house, porticus - portico, manus - hand.
Case endings
Neuter nouns end in the nominative singular in -u and they have the same ending in the accusative singular. In the plural in the nominative and accusative cases, they end in -a.
The fifth declension includes feminine words. As an exception to both female and masculine some writers include the words: dies - day, meridies - noon.
Case endings
Many words of the V declension do not have a plural or are not used in the plural in all cases.
